Ingredient review —Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA/DHA)
What is it?
Description
Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids that possess lipid-mediating and anti-inflammatory properties, and are essential for human health. (158) Two of the most important omega-3 fatty acids are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA found in supplements are most commonly derived from the livers of lean fish such as cod, and in the tissue of oily fish, including herring, mackerel, salmon, sardines, and tuna. (54) However, EPA and DHA are actually synthesized by the algae that are consumed by fish, not the fish themselves. A variety of supplements now exist, providing EPA and DHA from fish, algal, and other sources, though fish oils are predominantly used. (158)
General daily recommendations for omega-3s include the consumption of at least 1,000 mg total per day, providing a minimum combined sum of 250 mg of EPA and DHA. (139)(400) Most Americans do not typically meet current general dietary guidelines, even with supplementation. (278) EPA and DHA are believed to provide broad cardiovascular and neurological benefits, though their positive effects for clinical improvement in various conditions remain controversial. (351)
Not be confused with: Alpha-linolenic acid (a separate omega-3 fatty acid found in plant-foods)
Main uses
Cardiometabolic disorders
Cognitive function and maintenance
Inflammatory/pain disorders
Neurological disorders
Prenatal and offspring health/development
Prevention of cardiovascular surgical complications
Psychological disorders
Renal disorders
Formulations
EPA/DHA source
Characteristics & bioavailability
Algal oil
Krill oil
Natural fish oils
Processed fish oils
Fish oils manufactured to EPA/DHA concentrates, either as ethyl ester-bound fish oils or re-esterified TGs (73)
Ethyl ester-bound fish oils bind ethanol to the free fatty acids of fish oils by removing their glycerol backbone (73)
Re-esterified TGs reconnect free fatty acids back to glycerol after ethyl esterification to re-promote absorption/metabolism (73)
Relative order of highest to lowest bioavailability
Dosing & administration
Allergic disease development (prenatal)
General outcomes from A-level evidence
cord blood IL-13, and the risk/severity of atopic dermatitis, hay fever, asthma, and food allergies (e.g., egg or peanut) in infants during the first year of life, with possible extension to adolescence when consumed during pregnancy (45)(146)(200)(207)(246)(357)
Note: some evidence conflicts with regards to the use of omega-3s for the primary prevention of allergic disease or sensitization (17)
Dosing & administration
4,000 mg (with ~ 1,100-1,600 mg EPA/ 920-2,250 mg DHA) per day from 20-25 weeks gestation until delivery to pregnant women with optional continuation for 3-4 months during breastfeeding
Outcomes
prevalence/odds of food allergy by one year of age, severity of atopic dermatitis, IgE-associated disease by the age of two, risk of asthma by the age of 16, probability of needing prescription medications for asthma or allergic rhinitis by the age of 18, neonatal Th2:Th1 ratio, IL-10 response to cats, neutrophil LTB4 production (with lower IL-6 and IL-10 response), prostaglandin E2, & oxidative stress (F2-isoprostanes)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,500 mg (with 100-1,060 mg EPA/ 275-800 mg DHA) per day from 12-21 weeks gestation until delivery to pregnant women
Outcomes
relative risk of developing atopic dermatitis or sensitization to egg (~39%) within the first year of life, and for house dust mite (33%) by the age of six
Class of evidence
b
Alzheimer’s disease (AD)
Dosing & administration
4,000 mg (with 600 mg EPA/ 1,600 mg DHA) per day for six months to older adults
Outcomes
rate of decline in Mini-Mental State Examination score in Px with very mild cognitive dysfunction, and agitation & depression scores in Px with APOE-⍵4 genotype
global DNA hypomethylation
Class of evidence
b
Angioplasty
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Dosing & administration
6,000-15,000 mg (with 2,700-3,000 mg EPA/ 1,800-2,100 mg DHA as ethyl esters) in three divided doses per day for 3-4 weeks before and after coronary angioplasty with conventional antiplatelet regimen, with a 50% reduction in dose for six months post-intervention
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,000 mg (with 460 mg EPA/ 380 mg DHA as ethyl esters) per day for one month after coronary angiography during standard therapy
Outcomes
flow-mediated dilation, asymmetric dimethylarginine, pores in the fibrin network, & susceptibility to fibrinolysis
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
3,200 mg (EPA) per day for one week before coronary angioplasty with conventional antiplatelet regimen, and for six months post-angioplasty
Outcomes
rate of restenosis per vessel & per patient by ~20-27% (92)
Class of evidence
c
Asthma
Dosing & administration
4,000 mg (with 1,280 mg EPA/ 920 mg DHA as Pikasol™) per day from 30 weeks gestation until delivery to pregnant women
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
4,000 mg (with 1,320 mg EPA/ 888 mg DHA bound to TGs as Incromega™ TG3322) per day from 24 weeks gestation until 1 week post-delivery to pregnant women
Outcomes
rate of persistent wheeze or asthma in offspring (31%), risk of lower respiratory tract infections (25%) by the age of 3 (48)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,000 mg (as EPA/DHA) per day for nine months to adults with asthma
Outcomes
FEV1 by 23% (104)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
20,000 mg (with 3,200 mg EPA/ 2,000 mg DHA bound to TGs) per day for three weeks to patients (Px) with bronchial asthma
Outcomes
pulmonary function, & LTB5
LTC4-LTE4, PGD2, IL-1β, TNF-ɑ, LTB4, & need for bronchodilators (243)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
1,800-3,600 mg (with 504-1,008 mg EPA/ 216-532 mg DHA; dosages of EPA and DHA were 17.0-26.8 and 7.3-11.5 mg.kg of bodyweight, respectively) per day for 10 months to children with bronchial asthma
Outcomes
asthma symptom scores and reactivity to acetylcholine (264)
Class of evidence
c
Athletic performance
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Some evidence exists for benefits on reaction time, mood, cardiovascular effects (in cyclists), muscle recovery, post-exercise nitric oxide responses, and TNF-α; however, there is inconsistent evidence for endurance performance, pulmonary function, muscle performance, and training adaptation (218)
Dosing & administration
1,800-2,400 mg (with 600 mg EPA/ 260 mg DHA) per day for eight weeks prior to exercise and one-week post exercise to healthy untrained adults
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,000-8,000 mg (with 140-3,000 mg EPA/ 560-2,400 mg DHA) per day for eight weeks to cyclists
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,546 mg (with 551 mg EPA/ 551 mg DHA) in protein supplement per day for five weeks during pre-season training to professional rugby athletes
Outcomes
muscle soreness & fatigue, providing improved maintenance of muscular power (49)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
5,000-9,000 mg (with 3,500-6,300 mg EPA/ 1,000-1,800 mg DHA) per day for one month to competitive soccer players
Outcomes
Improves anaerobic endurance capacity (142)
Class of evidence
c
Atrial fibrillation (AF), postoperative
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Dosing & administration
>1,000 mg DHA (in ratios of <1.2 for EPA:DHA) per day
Outcomes
relative risk of postoperative AF (37%) (387)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
2,000 mg (with 600 mg EPA/ 400 mg DHA) per day for five days prior to surgery in addition to standard care
Outcomes
duration of AF, time in the ICU, & total time in hospital (361)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,000 mg (with ~850 mg EPA/DHA bound to ethyl esters) per day for five days prior to surgery and until hospital discharge, postoperatively
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
4,000 mg (with ~2,000 mg EPA/ 1,300 mg DHA) per day for 6-12 months post-surgery adjunct to antithrombotic treatment
Outcomes
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
6,000 mg (with 300 mg EPA/ 1,500 mg DHA) per day for 1-2 months before pulmonary vein isolation to Px with paroxysmal AF
Outcomes
pulmonary venous effective refractory periods (ERP), & left atrial ERPs
dispersion of pulmonary venous ERP, incidence of AF, & AF cycle length (210)
Class of evidence
c
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Dosing & administration
> 500 mg (as EPA) per day to children and adolescents
Outcomes
inattention with doses lower than 500 mg of EPA (which may also contain DHA), but >500 mg of EPA is required to reduce hyperactivity (65)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
~600-2,400 mg (with ~80-550 mg EPA/ 40-175 mg DHA bound to phospholipids or TGs in fish oil) per day for 3-4 months to children
Outcomes
Improves attention score (test of variables of attention; TOVA), CPRS subscores for cognitive problems/inattention, Conners ADHD index, Conners global index (restlessness-impulsivity), DSM-IV symptom subscores (inattentive and hyperactive-impulsivity), oppositional behavior, perfectionism, social problem subscales, & parent emotional-impact score (148)(231)(326)(358)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,000 mg (containing either 1,100 mg EPA/ 100 mg DHA, or 265 mg EPA/ 1,030 mg DHA) per day for four months to children
Outcomes
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
1,300 mg (with 650 mg EPA/ 650 mg DHA) per day for 16 weeks to children and adolescents using or not using methylphenidate
Outcomes
Improves parent-rated attention (51)
Class of evidence
c
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Dosing & administration
750 mg (with 200-722 mg DHA) per day for 6-12 months to children with optional combination with 2000 IU vitamin D
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,500 mg (with 840 mg EPA/ 700 mg DHA) per day for six weeks to children or adolescents
Outcomes
Improves hyperactivity & stereotypy (13)
Class of evidence
c
Bipolar disorder
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Dosing & administration
500-1,000 mg (as EPA bound to ethyl esters) twice per day to adults for three months
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,000 mg (with 700 mg EPA/ 100 mg DHA as OmegaBrite®) twice per day with or without psychoeducational psychotherapy for three months to children and adolescents
Outcomes
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
4,800-5,650 mg (as 2,500-3,100 mg EPA/ 1,500-1,700 mg DHA) twice per day added to current psychotherapy/medication treatments for 1-4 months to adults
Outcomes
Class of evidence
c
Cachexia
Dosing & administration
2,000-2,200 mg (as EPA) per day for 6-12 weeks during a polymeric diet with or without concomitant meloxicam to cancer patients
Outcomes
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
2,000 mg (with 360 mg EPA/ 240 mg DHA) three times per day with or without concomitant celecoxib for six weeks to adults with advanced lung cancer
Outcomes
muscle strength & body weight
CRP compared with fish oil alone (64)
Class of evidence
c
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
General outcomes from A-level evidence
risk of myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease (CHD) death, total CHD, CVD death, and total CVD, (1)(173) particularly in Px with high baseline TGs (≥ 150 mg/dL) or LDL-C (≥130 mg/dL) (229)
Note: outcomes in CVD have been extremely controversial with regards to the primary and secondary prevention of CVD and related events but given their safety profile, fish oils may be recommended for cardiovascular health; (204) doses >3,000 mg may be required for therapeutic benefit on CVD risk factors including the reduction of TGs (~15%), and improvement in SBP, DBP, heart rate, CRP, and HDL-C, with increases in LDL-C; (1)(7) older evidence shows no relationship between supplementation and reducing risk of CVD (26)(303)
Dosing & administration
<1,000-1,800 mg (as EPA/DHA) per day, ongoing
Outcomes
risk of myocardial infarction (8%), coronary heart disease (CHD) death (14%), total CHD (5%), CVD death (7%), total CVD (3%), & cardiac death (8%)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
> 3,000 mg (as EPA/DHA) per day, ongoing
Outcomes
TGs in particular, with possible improvements in SBP, DBP, heart rate, CRP, & HDL-C, and increases in LDL-C (7)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
700-3,000 mg (as DHA from algal oil - 1,680 mg as a median dose) per day
Outcomes
TGs
HDL-C & LDL-C (44)
Class of evidence
a
Coronary artery/heart disease (CAD/CHD)
General outcomes from A-level evidence
incidence of cardiac mortality (8-39% with a dose-response relationship) particularly in high-risk populations, total CHD (7%), atherosclerotic progression, and platelet aggregation (10)(132)(173)(180)(215)(322)(401)
flow-mediated dilation (~2.3%) (373)
Note: other evidence shows no effect on preventing atherosclerotic plaque accumulation, or reducing CHD-related events; (26)(189) fish oil administration increased the risk for sudden cardiac death in Px with angina, providing possible evidence for contraindication in CHD in the presence of angina (401)
Dosing & administration
> 1,800-3,000 mg (as EPA/DHA) per day for > 2-6 months to adults
Outcomes
Class of evidence
a
Cognitive function
Dosing & administration
> 1,000 mg (as EPA/DHA, containing >580 mg DHA) per day to adults with mild memory complaints
Outcomes
episodic memory (396)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
400-1,800 mg (as EPA/DHA) per day for a minimum of six months to older adults
Outcomes
rate of cognitive decline, particularly in ages >70 (397)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
1,500 mg (with 600 mg DHA from algal oil) per day for 16 weeks to children aged 7-12
Outcomes
reading and behavior (301)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,000 mg (with 772 mg EPA/ 368 mg DHA) twice per day for 12 weeks to older adults
Outcomes
cerebral cortex oxyhemoglobin (measuring neural activation)
P300 latency (measuring quicker rate of information processing) (203)
Class of evidence
c
Cyclosporine-induced hypertension or nephrotoxicity
General outcomes from A-level evidence
serum creatinine (measure of nephrotoxicity) & DBP, but overall, evidence is insufficient to recommend fish oil to improve adverse effects of cyclosporine (220)
Dosing & administration
3,000-4,000 mg (with 1,860 mg EPA/ 1,512 mg DHA) per day during cyclosporine therapy starting four days postoperatively for 6-12 months to heart transplant recipients
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
6,000-12,000 mg (with 1,800-2,160 mg EPA/ 1,200-1,440 mg DHA bound to ethyl esters) per day for 1-3 months to liver or kidney transplant recipients, or Px with psoriasis
Outcomes
Class of evidence
c
Cystic fibrosis
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Limited evidence indicates that omega-3s may provide some benefit, but current evidence remains insufficient (376)
Dosing & administration
5,000 mg (with 3,200 mg DHA) per day for two months to adults
Outcomes
arachidonic acid:DHA ratio in erythrocytes by one month, and expression of human leukocyte elastase complexes & IL-6 in blood (256)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
60 mg/kg body weight (EPA/DHA) per day adjunct to azithromycin for 12 months
Outcomes
number of pulmonary exacerbations & duration of antibiotic therapy (153)
Class of evidence
c
Depression
General outcomes from A-level evidence
symptoms of depression in clinical depression, depressive mood disorders or with depressive symptoms with greater effect using EPA than DHA, where formulations should contain >50-60% EPA (29)(30)(145)(151)(205)(219)(221)(235)(340)
Dosing & administration
>1,000-1,500 mg (EPA/DHA with >60% EPA) per day to adults or older adults with depressive disorder or bipolar depression
Outcomes
Improves depression scores in Px with mild-moderate depression, and inconsistently provides benefit to individuals with depressive symptoms at higher range doses
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
<1,000 mg (as EPA in formulations containing >60% EPA) per day to Px with depression or depressive symptoms
Outcomes
Improves depression scores compared with lower concentrations (<60% EPA), or compared with formulations containing high DHA proportions, or pure DHA (which were ineffective) (219)
Class of evidence
a
Dry eye
Dosing & administration
~1,500 mg (as 1,000 mg EPA/ 500 mg DHA as fish or krill oil) per day for three months
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,240 mg (as 1,680 mg EPA/ 560 mg DHA in re-esterified TG form) per day for 12 weeks to Px with meibomian gland dysfunction
Outcomes
disease severity score, tear osmolarity, & MMP-9
Improves tear breakup time (115)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,400 mg (as 1,440 mg EPA/ 960 mg DHA) per day to users of visual terminal displays
Outcomes
Improves dry eye symptom scores, tear breakup time, & conjunctival cytology (47)
Class of evidence
b
Dysmenorrhea
General outcomes from A-level evidence
pain scores (290)
Dosing & administration
< 1,350 mg (as EPA) per day for up to three months
Outcomes
pain with low dose protocols compared with protocols with higher doses or longer durations (290)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
300-1,800 mg (as 180-1,080 mg EPA/ 120-720 mg DHA) per day with or without vitamin B1, or vitamin E for 1-12 weeks
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,000 mg (as Neptune Krill Oil™) per day for three months to women with premenstrual syndrome
Outcomes
dysmenorrhea & emotional symptoms of PMS to a similar extent to fish oil, but is more efficacious in reducing the need for other analgesics (314)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
15 mL (with 550 mg EPA/ 205 mg DHA) per day for three months
Outcomes
Visual analogue scale, low back pain, & abdominal pain (253)
Class of evidence
c
Epilepsy
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Note: evidence is currently too limited to make clinical recommendations at a high level (316)
Dosing & administration
1,200-1,700 mg (with 360-1,000 mg EPA/ 240-700 mg DHA) per day for 12-16 weeks to children or adults
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
Daily administration of 937 mg (as 50.8 mg EPA/ 417.8 mg DHA) or 934 mg (as 385.6 mg EPA/ 81.2 mg DHA) to children (aged 5-10), 1874 mg (as 101.6 mg EPA/ 835.6 mg DHA) or 1,867 mg (as 771.2 mg EPA/ 162.4 mg DHA) to adolescents (aged 11-16), or 2,811 mg (as 152.4 mg EPA/ 1,253 mg DHA) or 2,802 mg (as 1,156.8 mg EPA/ 243 mg DHA) to adults (aged 17-50) with drug-resistant epilepsy adjunct to anticonvulsants for one year
Outcomes
incidence of seizures by 42% by EPA-heavy formulations or by 39% with DHA-heavy formulations with no statistical difference between the two (176)
Class of evidence
b
Heart failure
General outcomes from A-level evidence
risk of heart failure by 15% with higher intakes of dietary fish oils, (99) brain natriuretic peptides, serum norepinephrine, TNF-ɑ, IL-1, (371)(385) and left ventricular end-systolic volume
left ventricular ejection fraction
Improves functional capacity and peak oxygen consumption, particularly in non-ischaemic heart failure (386)
Note: may not reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death in heart failure (9)
Hemodialysis graft dysfunction
General outcomes from A-level evidence
relative risk of graft failure (19-29%), risk for cardiovascular events by 69%, depression scores, serum iPTH, CRP, and TGs in Px on maintenance hemodialysis or with arteriovenous fistula (161)(365)
Note: other evidence does not support the use of omega-3s to improve vascular access in hemodialysis (344)
Hypertension
Dosing & administration
> 500-2,000 mg (EPA/DHA) per day to adults for a minimum of eight weeks
Outcomes
Class of evidence
a
Hypertriglyceridemia (HTG)
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol, VLDL, & apolipoprotein C-III (with EPA ethyl esters) (217)(312) including in type II diabetes, (157)(255)(299) and HIV/AIDs (272)(339)(366)
Note: prescription omega-3 products are generally recommended for hypertriglyceridemia as they contain much higher concentrations of EPA, DHA, or both than supplements, making them much more practical; Px may need to consume more than 11 capsules from dietary supplements per day to match prescription fish oil efficacy; (27) for every 1,000 mg, a reduction of ~8 mg/dL in TGs may be expected, while a greater reduction of ~19 mg/dL may be observed in Px with higher baseline TGs (>294 mg/dL) (181)
Dosing & administration
1,000-3,250 mg (as fish oil or krill oil, containing high proportions of TG or phospholipid-bound EPA/DHA, respectively), ongoing
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
1,000-3,000 mg (as EPA/DHA) per day, for a minimum of 4-8 weeks to patients with HIV/AIDS using stable antiretroviral therapy
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
> 2,000 mg (as EPA ethyl esters) per day, ongoing
Outcomes
Apolipoprotein C-III compared with supplements containing EPA + DHA, or DHA only (312)
Class of evidence
a
Dosing & administration
2,000-4,000 mg (as EPA/DHA as fish oil or algal oil) per day for 4-24 weeks to adults, though doses up to 15,000 mg may be used safely
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
7,500 mg (with 3,000 mg DHA from algal oil) per day for three months to adults
Outcomes
TGs (24%), large VLDL (92%) & VLDL particle diameter (11nm), small LDL particles (22%), intermediate-density lipoprotein (53%), nonesterified fatty acids (13%), TG:HDL-C ratio (34%), number of circulating neutrophils (10-12%), CRP (15%), IL-6 (23%), & granulocyte monocyte-colony stimulating factor (21%);
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,500 mg (as 1,000 mg EPA/ 500 mg DHA in Omega Rx® by Dr. Sears Zone ®) twice per day for 12 weeks to obese children and adolescents
Outcomes
TGs by 39% (94)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
500-3,000 mg (with 67-268 mg EPA & 33-132 mg DHA in Superba™ krill oil or as Neptune Krill Oil™) once or twice per day for 12 weeks to adults
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,800 mg (as EPA) per day for three months to adults
Outcomes
TGs (31%)
endothelial function & VLDL oxidation (271)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
1,250 mg (as DHA in TG form) per day for six weeks to adults
Outcomes
TGs (17-21%)
HDL-C (6%) (89)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
6,000 mg (with 2,000 mg EPA/ 1,000 mg DHA in HiMega®) per day for six weeks with pravastatin to adults
Outcomes
TG, total cholesterol, VLDL, & intermediate-density lipoprotein to a greater extent than fish oil or atorvastatin alone (77)
Class of evidence
c
IgA nephropathy
General outcomes from A-level evidence
relative risk (~19%) of >50% increase in serum creatinine and end-stage renal disease (ESRD), but generally, high-level evidence does not support the use of fish oil in IgA nephropathy (222)
Dosing & administration
6,000 mg (840-935 mg EPA/ 485-680 mg DHA) once or twice per day for 2-4 years to adults
Outcomes
incidence of >50% reductions in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) after four years, incidence of >50% increases in creatinine, slows the rate of GFR reduction, slows the rate of creatinine increases after 2-4 years, & cumulative percent of patients developing ESRD or who died after 4-6.4 years (11)(100)(101)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,800 mg (as EPA) per day for 1 year to adults using ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers or corticosteroids
Outcomes
estimated creatinine clearance rate (354)
Class of evidence
c
Infant cognitive, psychomotor, and visual development
Dosing & administration
400-600 mg (as DHA from algal oil) per day from 14-22 weeks of pregnancy until delivery to pregnant women
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
300 mg (as 180 mg EPA/ 120 mg DHA) per day from 20 weeks gestation until 1 month post-partum to pregnant women
Outcomes
communication score at 4th month of age (276)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
200 mg (as DHA from algal oil) per day to lactating mothers for four months post-delivery
Outcomes
Bayley Psychomotor Development Index in infants 30 months old (185)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
Formula containing EPA (0.06%) and DHA (0.2%) from 3rd day of life until two months after their expected term to preterm birth infants
Outcomes
visual acuity after two months, but not beyond (63)
Class of evidence
c
Inflammatory bowel disease
Dosing & administration
500 mg (as EPA) twice per day adjunct to standard therapy for six months to Px with ulcerative colitis
Outcomes
fecal calprotectin
Improves odds of maintaining clinical remission compared with standard therapy alone (319)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
1,500 mg (with 600 mg EPA/ 300 mg DHA bound to free fatty acids) three times per day for 12 months to Px with Crohn’s disease
Outcomes
Improves odds of maintenance of clinical remission by 12 months (39)
Class of evidence
c
Menopausal symptoms
Dosing & administration
1,500 mg (with 1,050 mg EPA/ 150 mg DHA bound to ethyl esters) per day for eight weeks to middle-aged women
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Migraine
General outcomes from A-level evidence
duration of migraines by 3.44 hours but no effect on frequency or intensity (227)
Dosing & administration
2,500 mg (1,200 mg EPA/ 600 mg DHA) per day for two months to Px with episodic migraines with optional addition of curcumin
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
750 mg (as 400 mg EPA/ 350 mg DHA) twice per day for two months with amitriptyline to Px with chronic migraine
Outcomes
number of days with headache compared with amitriptyline alone (332)
Class of evidence
b
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)
General outcomes from A-level evidence
fatty liver, steatosis score, ALT, AST, GGT, TG, total cholesterol, LDL-C, HOMA-IR, and glucose
Dosing & administration
>250 mg (as DHA) to children, or >3,000 mg (as EPA/DHA) to adults per day for a minimum of six months
Outcomes
Class of evidence
a
Obesity/overweight
Dosing & administration
400-2,040 mg (as 180-600 mg EPA/ 120-1,620 mg DHA) 1-3 times per day for 4-12 weeks to overweight/obese subjects with or without a lifestyle intervention
Outcomes
waist circumference, body fat percentage, BMI, abdominal skin thickness, weight, weight regain post-intervention, depression scores (in px with depression), & VO2max compared with lifestyle intervention alone, and mean caloric/macronutrient intake in Px not on lifestyle intervention
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,300-4,000 mg (with ~1,200 mg EPA/ ~800 mg DHA) per day for 12 weeks to obese adults with concurrent metabolic risk factors on a calorie-restricted diet
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
3,000 mg (as 2,700 mg EPA or 2,700 mg DHA in re-esterified TG form) per day for 10 weeks to obese adults with low-grade inflammation
Outcomes
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
250-500 mg (as DHA) per day for six months to obese Px on an isocaloric diet
Outcomes
anti-inflammatory fatty acid index
AA/EPA & AA/DHA ratios in erythrocytes (90)
Class of evidence
c
Oral mucositis
General outcomes from A-level evidence
No data currently available.
Dosing & administration
2,000 mg (with 360 mg EPA/ 240 mg DHA bound to ethyl esters) per day during chemotherapy over three weeks
Outcomes
duration and pain/irritation severity of mucositis within 1-2 weeks, & eliminated mucositis after two weeks
Improved Px ability to speak, & eat or swallow food (159)
Class of evidence
b
Osteoarthritis (OA)
General outcomes from A-level evidence
Note: marine oils may not reduce pain in OA (323)
Dosing & administration
300 mg (with 51 mg EPA/ 30 mg DHA as Neptune Krill Oil™) per day for one month to adults
Outcomes
WOMAC pain, stiffness and functional impairment scores within seven days, & CRP in seven days with further reductions after 2-4 weeks (97)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
2,000 mg (with 240 mg EPA/ 110 mg DHA as Superba™ krill oil) per day for one month in Px with mild knee pain
Outcomes
Improves pain/stiffness in sleeping & standing positions, and range of motion (342)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
15 ml equivalent to 1,500 mg (with 450 mg EPA/DHA) per day for two years to adults with knee OA
Outcomes
WOMAC pain score to a greater extent than high dose (164)
Class of evidence
c
Osteoporosis
General outcomes from A-level evidence
serum osteocalcin but not bone-specific alkaline phosphatase or collagen type I cross-linked C-telopeptide (324)
Dosing & administration
1,200 mg (with 720 mg EPA/ 480 mg DHA) per day for six months to postmenopausal women on standard calcium + vitamin D regimens
Outcomes
bone-specific alkaline phosphatase & osteocalcin, but this may be primarily driven by calcium/vitamin D
EPA/DHA:arachidonic acid ratio (102)
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
4,000 mg (with 2,520 mg EPA/ 1,680 mg DHA) per day for three months to postmenopausal breast cancer survivors on aromatase inhibitor therapy
Outcomes
bone resorption, & omega-6:omega-3 ratio (175)
Class of evidence
c
Dosing & administration
4,000 mg (with 640 mg EPA/ 440 mg DHA) per day for four months to osteoporotic patients
Outcomes
osteocalcin, procollagen, serum calcium, & urinary calcium clearance (360)
Class of evidence
c
Periodontitis
General outcomes from A-level evidence
clinical attachment loss and probing depth when used as adjunct therapy for three months, compared with standard therapy alone (208)
Dosing & administration
3,000 mg (with 450-900 mg EPA/ 900 mg DHA) or 2,000 mg (as DHA), per day for 3-6 months with aspirin and standard periodontitis therapy to adults
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Dosing & administration
500-2,000 mg (with 180-600 mg EPA/ 120-400 mg DHA) per day for 1-6 months to adults receiving periodontal therapy
Outcomes
Class of evidence
b
Adverse effects
It has been suggested that fish oil supplements increase the risk of bleeding due to their anti-thrombotic properties. (37) However, systematic reviews have not found this theory to be substantiated. (38)(365)(387) Another concern is the possible increased exposure to environmental toxins, such as mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls, or other organochlorines, though this may also be unsubstantiated. (242)(331) Higher incidence of gastrointestinal adverse effects may occur when combined with statins, (72) but not placebo, and are typically limited to mild-moderate severity. (367) Fishy tasting eructation is commonly reported with fish oil supplementation. (19)
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
- EPA and DHA bound to triglycerides require emulsification and hydrolysis via lingual, gastric, and pancreatic lipases into free fatty acids and mono-glycerols prior to incorporation into micelles and subsequent absorption in the small intestine
- EPA/DHA bound to phospholipids are only hydrolyzed in the small intestine and may spontaneously form micelles for absorption
- Triglycerides are resynthesized from free fatty acids, mono-glycerols, and phospholipids in enterocytes and packaged into chylomicrons for transport in the lymphatic system to the liver for redistribution within lipoprotein molecules (e.g., LDL or HDL) or as plasma phospholipids (178)(261)
Distribution
- Widely distributed to phospholipid membranes, but particularly distributed to neural, retinal, heart, and brain tissues
- Can be stored as triglycerides in adipose tissue
- Highest distribution concentrations dose-dependently begin to plateau with one gram per day within approximately two weeks (23)(237)
Metabolism
References
- Abdelhamid, A. S., Brown, T. J., Brainard, J. S., Biswas, P., Thorpe, G. C., Moore, H. J., Deane, K. H., Summerbell, C. D., Worthington, H. V., Song, F., & Hooper, L. (2020). Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 3, CD003177. ()
- Abdolahi, M., Jafarieh, A., Sarraf, P., Sedighiyan, M., Yousefi, A., Tafakhori, A., Abdollahi, H., Salehinia, F., & Djalali, M. (2019). The neuromodulatory effects of ω-3 fatty acids and nano-curcumin on the COX-2/ iNOS network in migraines: A clinical trial study from gene expression to clinical symptoms. Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders Drug Targets, 19(6), 874–884. ()
- Abdolahi, M., Sarraf, P., Javanbakht, M. H., Honarvar, N. M., Hatami, M., Soveyd, N., Tafakhori, A., Sedighiyan, M., Djalali, M., Jafarieh, A., Masoudian, Y., & Djalali, M. (2018). A novel combination of ω-3 fatty acids and nano-curcumin modulates interleukin-6 gene expression and high sensitivity C-reactive protein serum levels in patients with migraine: A randomized clinical trial study. CNS & Neurological Disorders Drug Targets, 17(6), 430–438. ()
- Abdolahi, M., Tafakhori, A., Togha, M., Okhovat, A. A., Siassi, F., Eshraghian, M. R., Sedighiyan, M., Djalali, M., Mohammadzadeh Honarvar, N., & Djalali, M. (2017). The synergistic effects of ω-3 fatty acids and nano-curcumin supplementation on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α gene expression and serum level in migraine patients. Immunogenetics, 69(6), 371–378. ()
- Abdullah, M., Jowett, B., Whittaker, P. J., & Patterson, L. (2019). The effectiveness of omega-3 supplementation in reducing ADHD associated symptoms in children as measured by the Conners’ rating scales: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 110, 64–73. ()
- Abdulrazaq, M., Innes, J. K., & Calder, P. C. (2017). Effect of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on arthritic pain: A systematic review. Nutrition , 39-40, 57–66. ()
- AbuMweis, S., Jew, S., Tayyem, R., & Agraib, L. (2018). Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid containing supplements modulate risk factors for cardiovascular disease: A meta-analysis of randomised placebo-control human clinical trials. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics: The Official Journal of the British Dietetic Association, 31(1), 67–84. ()
- Agostoni, C., Nobile, M., Ciappolino, V., Delvecchio, G., Tesei, A., Turolo, S., Crippa, A., Mazzocchi, A., Altamura, C. A., & Brambilla, P. (2017). The role of omega-3 fatty acids in developmental psychopathology: A systematic review on early psychosis, autism, and ADHD. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(12). ()
- Al-Gobari, M., Al-Aqeel, S., Gueyffier, F., & Burnand, B. (2018). Effectiveness of drug interventions to prevent sudden cardiac death in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: An overview of systematic reviews. BMJ Open, 8(7), e021108. ()
- Alexander, D. D., Miller, P. E., Van Elswyk, M. E., Kuratko, C. N., & Bylsma, L. C. (2017). A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and prospective cohort studies of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. Mayo Clinic, 92(1), 15–29. ()
- Alexopoulos, E., Stangou, M., Pantzaki, A., Kirmizis, D., & Memmos, D. (2004). Treatment of severe IgA nephropathy with omega-3 fatty acids: The effect of a “very low dose” regimen. Renal Failure, 26(4), 453–459. ()
- Allaire, J., Couture, P., Leclerc, M., Charest, A., Marin, J., Lépine, M.-C., Talbot, D., Tchernof, A., & Lamarche, B. (2016). A randomized, crossover, head-to-head comparison of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid supplementation to reduce inflammation markers in men and women: The Comparing EPA to DHA (ComparED) Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 104(2), 280–287. ()
- Amminger, G. P., Berger, G. E., Schäfer, M. R., Klier, C., Friedrich, M. H., & Feucht, M. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation in children with autism: A double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. Biological Psychiatry, 61(4), 551–553. ()
- Amminger, G. P., Chanen, A. M., Ohmann, S., Klier, C. M., Mossaheb, N., Bechdolf, A., Nelson, B., Thompson, A., McGorry, P. D., Yung, A. R., & Schäfer, M. R. (2013). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in adolescents with borderline personality disorder and ultra-high risk criteria for psychosis: A post hoc subgroup analysis of a double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(7), 402–408. ()
- Amminger, G. P., Schäfer, M. R., Papageorgiou, K., Klier, C. M., Cotton, S. M., Harrigan, S. M., Mackinnon, A., McGorry, P. D., & Berger, G. E. (2010). Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids for indicated prevention of psychotic disorders: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(2), 146–154. ()
- Amminger, G. P., Schäfer, M. R., Schlögelhofer, M., Klier, C. M., & McGorry, P. D. (2015). Longer-term outcome in the prevention of psychotic disorders by the Vienna omega-3 study. Nature Communications, 6, 7934. ()
- Anandan, C., Nurmatov, U., & Sheikh, A. (2009). Omega 3 and 6 oils for primary prevention of allergic disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy, 64(6), 840–848. ()
- Andreassen, A. K., Hartmann, A., Offstad, J., Geiran, O., Kvernebo, K., & Simonsen, S. (1997). Hypertension prophylaxis with omega-3 fatty acids in heart transplant recipients. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 29(6), 1324–1331. ()
- Appel, L. J., Miller, E. R., 3rd, Seidler, A. J., & Whelton, P. K. (1993). Does supplementation of diet with “fish oil” reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153(12), 1429–1438. ()
- Appleton, K. M., Sallis, H. M., Perry, R., Ness, A. R., & Churchill, R. (2015). Omega-3 fatty acids for depression in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 11, CD004692. ()
- Armaganijan, L., Lopes, R. D., Healey, J. S., Piccini, J. P., Nair, G. M., & Morillo, C. A. (2011). Do omega-3 fatty acids prevent atrial fibrillation after open heart surgery? A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinics, 66(11), 1923–1928. ()
- Arriens, C., Hynan, L. S., Lerman, R. H., Karp, D. R., & Mohan, C. (2015). Placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial of fish oil’s impact on fatigue, quality of life, and disease activity in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Nutrition Journal, 14, 82. ()
- Arterburn, L. M., Hall, E. B., & Oken, H. (2006). Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83(6 Suppl), 1467S–1476S. ()
- Asemi, Z., Soleimani, A., Shakeri, H., Mazroii, N., & Esmaillzadeh, A. (2016). Effects of omega-3 fatty acid plus alpha-tocopherol supplementation on malnutrition-inflammation score, biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress in chronic hemodialysis patients. International Urology and Nephrology, 48(11), 1887–1895. ()
- Ateya, A. M., Sabri, N. A., El Hakim, I., & Shaheen, S. M. (2017). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on serum lipid profile and oxidative stress in pediatric patients on regular hemodialysis: A randomized placebo-controlled study. Journal of Renal Nutrition: The Official Journal of the Council on Renal Nutrition of the National Kidney Foundation, 27(3), 169–174. ()
- Aung, T., Halsey, J., Kromhout, D., Gerstein, H. C., Marchioli, R., Tavazzi, L., Geleijnse, J. M., Rauch, B., Ness, A., Galan, P., Chew, E. Y., Bosch, J., Collins, R., Lewington, S., Armitage, J., Clarke, R., & omega-3 treatment trialists’ collaboration. (2018). associations of omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: Meta-analysis of 10 trials Involving 77 917 individuals. JAMA Cardiology, 3(3), 225–234. ()
- Backes, J., Anzalone, D., Hilleman, D., & Catini, J. (2016). The clinical relevance of omega-3 fatty acids in the management of hypertriglyceridemia. Lipids in Health and Disease, 15(1), 118. ()
- Badalamenti, S., Salerno, F., Lorenzano, E., Paone, G., Como, G., Finazzi, S., Sacchetta, A. C., Rimola, A., Graziani, G., & Galmarini, D. (1995). Renal effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil in cyclosporine-treated liver transplant recipients. Hepatology , 22(6), 1695–1671. ()
- Bae, J.-H., & Kim, G. (2018). Systematic review and meta-analysis of omega-3-fatty acids in elderly patients with depression. Nutrition Research , 50, 1–9. ()
- Bai, Z.-G., Bo, A., Wu, S.-J., Gai, Q.-Y., & Chi, I. (2018). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and reduction of depressive symptoms in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 241, 241–248. ()
- Bairati, I., Roy, L., & Meyer, F. (1992). Double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of fish oil supplements in prevention of recurrence of stenosis after coronary angioplasty. Circulation, 85(3), 950–956. ()
- Baleztena, J., Arana, M., Bes-Rastrollo, M., Castellanos, M. C., Gozalo, M. J., & Ruiz-Canela, M. (2017). [Does Omega-3 supplementation after the age of 65 influence cognitive function? Results of a systematic review]. Anales del sistema sanitario de Navarra, 40(3), 433–442. ()
- Balk, E. M., Lichtenstein, A. H., Chung, M., Kupelnick, B., Chew, P., & Lau, J. (2006). Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on coronary restenosis, intima-media thickness, and exercise tolerance: A systematic review. Atherosclerosis, 184(2), 237–246. ()
- Barden, A. E., Mori, T. A., Dunstan, J. A., Taylor, A. L., Thornton, C. A., Croft, K. D., Beilin, L. J., & Prescott, S. L. (2004). Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy lowers F2-isoprostanes in neonates at high risk of atopy. Free Radical Research, 38(3), 233–239. ()
- Barden, A. E., Shinde, S., Burke, V., Puddey, I. B., Beilin, L. J., Irish, A. B., Watts, G. F., & Mori, T. A. (2018). The effect of n-3 fatty acids and coenzyme Q10 supplementation on neutrophil leukotrienes, mediators of inflammation resolution and myeloperoxidase in chronic kidney disease. Prostaglandins & Other Lipid Mediators, 136, 1–8. ()
- Barden, A., O’Callaghan, N., Burke, V., Mas, E., Beilin, L. J., Fenech, M., Irish, A. B., Watts, G. F., Puddey, I. B., Huang, R.-C., & Mori, T. A. (2016). N-3 fatty acid supplementation and leukocyte telomere length in patients with chronic kidney disease. Nutrients, 8(3), 175. ()
- Bays, H. E. (2007). Safety considerations with omega-3 fatty acid therapy. The American Journal of Cardiology, 99(6A), 35C – 43C. ()
- Begtrup, K. M., Krag, A. E., & Hvas, A.-M. (2017). No impact of fish oil supplements on bleeding risk: A systematic review. Danish Medical Journal, 64(5). ()
- Belluzzi, A., Brignola, C., Campieri, M., Pera, A., Boschi, S., & Miglioli, M. (1996). Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn’s disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 334(24), 1557–1560. ()
- Bender, N., Portmann, M., Heg, Z., Hofmann, K., Zwahlen, M., & Egger, M. (2014). Fish or n3-PUFA intake and body composition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 15(8), 657–665. ()
- Benedetto, U., Angeloni, E., Melina, G., Danesi, T. H., Di Bartolomeo, R., Lechiancole, A., Refice, S., Roscitano, A., Comito, C., & Sinatra, R. (2013). n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids for the prevention of postoperative atrial fibrillation: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine , 14(2), 104–109. ()
- Berge, K., Musa-Veloso, K., Harwood, M., Hoem, N., & Burri, L. (2014). Krill oil supplementation lowers serum triglycerides without increasing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in adults with borderline high or high triglyceride levels. Nutrition Research , 34(2), 126–133. ()
- Berger, G. E., Wood, S. J., Wellard, R. M., Proffitt, T. M., McConchie, M., Amminger, G. P., Jackson, G. D., Velakoulis, D., Pantelis, C., & McGorry, P. D. (2008). Ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid in first-episode psychosis. A 1H-MRS study. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(10), 2467–2473. ()
- Bernstein, A. M., Ding, E. L., Willett, W. C., & Rimm, E. B. (2012). A meta-analysis shows that docosahexaenoic acid from algal oil reduces serum triglycerides and increases HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in persons without coronary heart disease. The Journal of Nutrition, 142(1), 99–104. ()
- Best, K. P., Gold, M., Kennedy, D., Martin, J., & Makrides, M. (2016). Omega-3 long-chain PUFA intake during pregnancy and allergic disease outcomes in the offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies and randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 103(1), 128–143. ()
- Best, K. P., Sullivan, T., Palmer, D., Gold, M., Kennedy, D. J., Martin, J., & Makrides, M. (2016). Prenatal fish oil supplementation and allergy: 6-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics, 137(6). ()
- Bhargava, R., Kumar, P., & Arora, Y. (2016). Short-term omega 3 fatty acids treatment for dry eye in young and middle-aged visual display terminal users. Eye & Contact Lens, 42(4), 231–236. ()
- Bisgaard, H., Stokholm, J., Chawes, B. L., Vissing, N. H., Bjarnadóttir, E., Schoos, A.-M. M., Wolsk, H. M., Pedersen, T. M., Vinding, R. K., Thorsteinsdóttir, S., Følsgaard, N. V., Fink, N. R., Thorsen, J., Pedersen, A. G., Waage, J., Rasmussen, M. A., Stark, K. D., Olsen, S. F., & Bønnelykke, K. (2016). Fish oil-derived fatty acids in pregnancy and wheeze and asthma in offspring. The New England Journal of Medicine, 375(26), 2530–2539. ()
- Black, K. E., Witard, O. C., Baker, D., Healey, P., Lewis, V., Tavares, F., Christensen, S., Pease, T., & Smith, B. (2018). Adding omega-3 fatty acids to a protein-based supplement during pre-season training results in reduced muscle soreness and the better maintenance of explosive power in professional Rugby Union players. European Journal of Sport Science: EJSS: Official Journal of the European College of Sport Science, 18(10), 1357–1367. ()
- Bloch, M. H., & Qawasmi, A. (2011). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(10), 991–1000. ()
- Bos, D. J., Oranje, B., Veerhoek, E. S., Van Diepen, R. M., Weusten, J. M., Demmelmair, H., Koletzko, B., de Sain-van der Velden, M. G., Eilander, A., Hoeksma, M., & Durston, S. (2015). Reduced symptoms of inattention after dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in boys with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(10), 2298–2306. ()
- Brown, T. J., Brainard, J., Song, F., Wang, X., Abdelhamid, A., Hooper, L., & PUFAH Group. (2019). Omega-3, omega-6, and total dietary polyunsaturated fat for prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 366, l4697. ()
- Bunea, R., El Farrah, K., & Deutsch, L. (2004). Evaluation of the effects of Neptune Krill Oil on the clinical course of hyperlipidemia. Alternative Medicine Review: A Journal of Clinical Therapeutic, 9(4), 420–428. ()
- Calder, P. C. (2012). Mechanisms of action of (n-3) fatty acids. The Journal of Nutrition, 142(3), 592S – 599S. ()
- Calò, L., Bianconi, L., Colivicchi, F., Lamberti, F., Loricchio, M. L., de Ruvo, E., Meo, A., Pandozi, C., Staibano, M., & Santini, M. (2005). N-3 Fatty acids for the prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass surgery: A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 45(10), 1723–1728. ()
- Campan, P., Planchand, P. O., & Duran, D. (1996). [Polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of experimental human gingivitis]. Bulletin du Groupement International Pour la Recherche Scientifique en Stomatologie & Odontologie, 39(1-2), 25–31. ()
- Campan, P., Planchand, P. O., & Duran, D. (1997). Pilot study on n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of human experimental gingivitis. Journal of Clinical Periodontology, 24(12), 907–913. ()
- Campbell, A., Price, J., & Hiatt, W. R. (2013). Omega-3 fatty acids for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 7, CD003833. ()
- Campbell, F., Dickinson, H. O., Critchley, J. A., Ford, G. A., & Bradburn, M. (2013). A systematic review of fish-oil supplements for the prevention and treatment of hypertension. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 20(1), 107–120. ()
- Canhada, S., Castro, K., Perry, I. S., & Luft, V. C. (2018). Omega-3 fatty acids’ supplementation in Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review. Nutritional Neuroscience, 21(8), 529–538. ()
- Cao, H., Wang, X., Huang, H., Ying, S. Z., Gu, Y. W., Wang, T., & Huang, C. X. (2012). Omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of atrial fibrillation recurrences after cardioversion: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Internal Medicine , 51(18), 2503–2508. https://doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.51.7714 ()
- Carlson, S. E., Colombo, J., Gajewski, B. J., Gustafson, K. M., Mundy, D., Yeast, J., Georgieff, M. K., Markley, L. A., Kerling, E. H., & Shaddy, D. J. (2013). DHA supplementation and pregnancy outcomes. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(4), 808–815. ()
- Carlson, S. E., Werkman, S. H., & Tolley, E. A. (1996). Effect of long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplementation on visual acuity and growth of preterm infants with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 63(5), 687–697. ()
- Cerchietti, L. C. A., Navigante, A. H., & Castro, M. A. (2007). Effects of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic n-3 fatty acids from fish oil and preferential Cox-2 inhibition on systemic syndromes in patients with advanced lung cancer. Nutrition and Cancer, 59(1), 14–20. ()
- Chang, J. P.-C., Su, K.-P., Mondelli, V., & Pariante, C. M. (2018). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in youths with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials and biological studies. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 43(3), 534–545. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.160 ()
- Chen, A. T., Chibnall, J. T., & Nasrallah, H. A. (2015). A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials of omega-3 fatty acid augmentation in schizophrenia: Possible stage-specific effects. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists, 27(4), 289–296. ()
- Chen, B., Ji, X., Zhang, L., Hou, Z., Li, C., & Tong, Y. (2016). Fish oil supplementation improves pregnancy outcomes and size of the newborn: A meta-analysis of 21 randomized controlled trials. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine: The Official Journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstetricians, 29(12), 2017–2027. ()
- Chen, C., Yu, X., & Shao, S. (2015). Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on glucose control and lipid levels in type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis. PloS One, 10(10), e0139565. ()
- Chen, L.-H., Wang, Y.-F., Xu, Q.-H., & Chen, S.-S. (2018). Omega-3 fatty acids as a treatment for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Nutrition, 37(2), 516–521. ()
- Chen, X., Hong, S., Sun, X., Xu, W., Li, H., Ma, T., Zheng, Q., Zhao, H., Zhou, Y., Qiang, Y., Li, B., & Li, X. (2020). Efficacy of fish oil and its components in the management of psoriasis: A systematic review of 18 randomized controlled trials. Nutrition Reviews. ()
- Chinnery, H. R., Naranjo Golborne, C., & Downie, L. E. (2017). Omega-3 supplementation is neuroprotective to corneal nerves in dry eye disease: A pilot study. Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics: The Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians , 37(4), 473–481. ()
- Choi, H. D., & Chae, S. M. (2018). Comparison of efficacy and safety of combination therapy with statins and omega-3 fatty acids versus statin monotherapy in patients with dyslipidemia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine, 97(50), e13593. ()
- Cholewski, M., Tomczykowa, M., & Tomczyk, M. (2018). A comprehensive review of chemistry, sources and bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids. Nutrients, 10(11). ()
- Ciappolino, V., Mazzocchi, A., Enrico, P., Syrén, M.-L., Delvecchio, G., Agostoni, C., & Brambilla, P. (2018). n-3 Polyunsatured fatty acids in menopausal transition: A systematic review of depressive and cognitive disorders with accompanying vasomotor symptoms. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(7). ()
- Clark, C. C. T., Taghizadeh, M., Nahavandi, M., & Jafarnejad, S. (2019). Efficacy of ω-3 supplementation in patients with psoriasis: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Rheumatology, 38(4), 977–988. ()
- Colombo, J., Shaddy, D. J., Gustafson, K., Gajewski, B. J., Thodosoff, J. M., Kerling, E., & Carlson, S. E. (2019). The Kansas University DHA Outcomes Study (KUDOS) clinical trial: Long-term behavioral follow-up of the effects of prenatal DHA supplementation. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 109(5), 1380–1392. ()
- Contacos, C., Barter, P. J., & Sullivan, D. R. (1993). Effect of pravastatin and omega-3 fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis: A Journal of Vascular Biology / American Heart Association, 13(12), 1755–1762. ()
- Cook, C. M., Hallaråker, H., Sæbø, P. C., Innis, S. M., Kelley, K. M., Sanoshy, K. D., Berger, A., & Maki, K. C. (2016). Bioavailability of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from phospholipid-rich herring roe oil in men and women with mildly elevated triacylglycerols. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 111, 17–24. ()
- Cooper, R. E., Tye, C., Kuntsi, J., Vassos, E., & Asherson, P. (2015). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychopharmacology , 29(7), 753–763. ()
- Cooper, R. E., Tye, C., Kuntsi, J., Vassos, E., & Asherson, P. (2016). The effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on emotional dysregulation, oppositional behaviour and conduct problems in ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 190, 474–482. ()
- Costanzo, S., di Niro, V., Di Castelnuovo, A., Gianfagna, F., Donati, M. B., de Gaetano, G., & Iacoviello, L. (2013). Prevention of postoperative atrial fibrillation in open heart surgery patients by preoperative supplementation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: An updated meta-analysis. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 146(4), 906–911. ()
- Curado Borges, M., de Miranda Moura Dos Santos, F., Weiss Telles, R., Melo de Andrade, M. V., Toulson Davisson Correia, M. I., & Lanna, C. C. D. (2017). Omega-3 fatty acids, inflammatory status and biochemical markers of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: A pilot study. Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, 57(6), 526–534. ()
- Da Boit, M., Sibson, R., Sivasubramaniam, S., Meakin, J. R., Greig, C. A., Aspden, R. M., Thies, F., Jeromson, S., Hamilton, D. L., Speakman, J. R., Hambly, C., Mangoni, A. A., Preston, T., & Gray, S. R. (2017). Sex differences in the effect of fish-oil supplementation on the adaptive response to resistance exercise training in older people: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 105(1), 151–158. ()
- Daak, A. A., Elderdery, A. Y., Elbashir, L. M., Mariniello, K., Mills, J., Scarlett, G., Elbashir, M. I., & Ghebremeskel, K. (2015). Omega 3 (n-3) fatty acids down-regulate nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) gene and blood cell adhesion molecule expression in patients with homozygous sickle cell disease. Blood Cells, Molecules & Diseases, 55(1), 48–55. ()
- Daak, A. A., Ghebremeskel, K., Hassan, Z., Attallah, B., Azan, H. H., Elbashir, M. I., & Crawford, M. (2013). Effect of omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid supplementation in patients with sickle cell anemia: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(1), 37–44. ()
- Daak, A. A., Ghebremeskel, K., Mariniello, K., Attallah, B., Clough, P., & Elbashir, M. I. (2013). Docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation does not exacerbate oxidative stress or intravascular haemolysis in homozygous sickle cell patients. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 89(5), 305–311. ()
- Danno, K., & Sugie, N. (1998). Combination therapy with low-dose etretinate and eicosapentaenoic acid for psoriasis vulgaris. The Journal of Dermatology, 25(11), 703–705. ()
- Davidson, M. H., Johnson, J., Rooney, M. W., Kyle, M. L., & Kling, D. F. (2012). A novel omega-3 free fatty acid formulation has dramatically improved bioavailability during a low-fat diet compared with omega-3-acid ethyl esters: the ECLIPSE (Epanova(®) compared to Lovaza(®) in a pharmacokinetic single-dose evaluation) study. Journal of Clinical Lipidology, 6(6), 573–584. ()
- Davidson, M. H., Maki, K. C., Kalkowski, J., Schaefer, E. J., Torri, S. A., & Drennan, K. B. (1997). Effects of docosahexaenoic acid on serum lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 16(3), 236–243. ()
- de Luis, D., Domingo, J. C., Izaola, O., Casanueva, F. F., Bellido, D., & Sajoux, I. (2016). Effect of DHA supplementation in a very low-calorie ketogenic diet in the treatment of obesity: A randomized clinical trial. Endocrine, 54(1), 111–122. ()
- de Souza Fernandes, D. P., Canaan Rezende, F. A., Pereira Rocha, G., De Santis Filgueiras, M., Silva Moreira, P. R., & Gonçalves Alfenas, R. de C. (2015a). Effect of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid supplementations to control cognitive decline in dementia and alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review. Nutricion Hospitalaria: Organo Oficial de La Sociedad Espanola de Nutricion Parenteral Y Enteral, 32(2), 528–533. ()
- Dehmer, G. J., Popma, J. J., van den Berg, E. K., Eichhorn, E. J., Prewitt, J. B., Campbell, W. B., Jennings, L., Willerson, J. T., & Schmitz, J. M. (1988). Reduction in the rate of early restenosis after coronary angioplasty by a diet supplemented with n-3 fatty acids. The New England Journal of Medicine, 319(12), 733–740. ()
- Deinema, L. A., Vingrys, A. J., Wong, C. Y., Jackson, D. C., Chinnery, H. R., & Downie, L. E. (2017). A randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled clinical trial of two forms of omega-3 supplements for treating dry eye disease. Ophthalmology, 124(1), 43–52. ()
- Del-Río-Navarro, B. E., Miranda-Lora, A. L., Huang, F., Hall-Mondragon, M. S., & Leija-Martínez, J. J. (2019). Effect of supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids on hypertriglyceridemia in pediatric patients with obesity. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism: JPEM, 32(8), 811–819. ()
- Denburg, J. A., Hatfield, H. M., Cyr, M. M., Hayes, L., Holt, P. G., Sehmi, R., Dunstan, J. A., & Prescott, S. L. (2005). Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal progenitors at birth in infants at risk of atopy. Pediatric Research, 57(2), 276–281. ()
- Derbyshire, E. (2018). Brain Health across the lifespan: A systematic review on the role of omega-3 fatty acid supplements. Nutrients, 10(8). ()
- Deutsch, L. (2007). Evaluation of the effect of Neptune Krill Oil on chronic inflammation and arthritic symptoms. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 26(1), 39–48. ()
- Dewey, A., Baughan, C., Dean, T., Higgins, B., & Johnson, I. (2007). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, an omega-3 fatty acid from fish oils) for the treatment of cancer cachexia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 1, CD004597. ()
- Djoussé, L., Akinkuolie, A. O., Wu, J. H. Y., Ding, E. L., & Gaziano, J. M. (2012). Fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acids and risk of heart failure: A meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition , 31(6), 846–853. ()
- Donadio, J. V., Jr, Bergstralh, E. J., Offord, K. P., Spencer, D. C., & Holley, K. E. (1994). A controlled trial of fish oil in IgA nephropathy. Mayo Nephrology Collaborative Group. The New England Journal of Medicine, 331(18), 1194–1199. ()
- Donadio, J. V., Jr, Grande, J. P., Bergstralh, E. J., Dart, R. A., Larson, T. S., & Spencer, D. C. (1999). The long-term outcome of patients with IgA nephropathy treated with fish oil in a controlled trial. Mayo Nephrology Collaborative Group. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: JASN, 10(8), 1772–1777. ()
- Dong, H., Hutchins-Wiese, H., Kleppinger, A., Annis, K., Liva, E., Lammi-Keefe, C., Durham, H., Feinn, R., & Kenny, A. M. (2014). Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on bone turnover in older women. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research, 84(3-4), 124–132. ()
- Downie, L. E., Ng, S. M., Lindsley, K. B., & Akpek, E. K. (2019). Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids for dry eye disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 12, CD011016. ()
- Dry, J., & Vincent, D. (1991). Effect of a fish oil diet on asthma: Results of a 1-year double-blind study. International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology, 95(2-3), 156–157. ()
- Du, S., Jin, J., Fang, W., & Su, Q. (2015). Does fish oil have an anti-obesity effect in overweight/obese adults? A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PloS One, 10(11), e0142652. ()
- Duffy, E. M., Meenagh, G. K., McMillan, S. A., Strain, J. J., Hannigan, B. M., & Bell, A. L. (2004). The clinical effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fish oils and/or copper in systemic lupus erythematosus. The Journal of Rheumatology, 31(8), 1551–1556. ()
- Dunstan, J. A., Mori, T. A., Barden, A., Beilin, L. J., Taylor, A. L., Holt, P. G., & Prescott, S. L. (2003). Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal allergen-specific immune responses and clinical outcomes in infants at high risk of atopy: A randomized, controlled trial. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 112(6), 1178–1184. ()
- Dyerberg, J., Madsen, P., Møller, J. M., Aardestrup, I., & Schmidt, E. B. (2010). Bioavailability of marine n-3 fatty acid formulations. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 83(3), 137–141. ()
- El-Sharkawy, H., Aboelsaad, N., Eliwa, M., Darweesh, M., Alshahat, M., Kantarci, A., Hasturk, H., & Van Dyke, T. E. (2010). Adjunctive treatment of chronic periodontitis with daily dietary supplementation with omega-3 Fatty acids and low-dose aspirin. Journal of Periodontology, 81(11), 1635–1643. ()
- Elgendy, E. A., & Kazem, H. H. (2018). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on chronic periodontitis patients in postmenopausal women: A randomised controlled clinical study. Oral Health & Preventive Dentistry, 16(4), 327–332. ()
- Elkhouli, A. M. (2011). The efficacy of host response modulation therapy (omega-3 plus low-dose aspirin) as an adjunctive treatment of chronic periodontitis (clinical and biochemical study). Journal of Periodontal Research, 46(2), 261–268. ()
- Elwakeel, N. M., & Hazaa, H. H. (2015). Effect of omega 3 fatty acids plus low-dose aspirin on both clinical and biochemical profiles of patients with chronic periodontitis and type 2 diabetes: A randomized double blind placebo-controlled study. Journal of Periodontal Research, 50(6), 721–729. ()
- Emsley, R., Myburgh, C., Oosthuizen, P., & van Rensburg, S. J. (2002). Randomized, placebo-controlled study of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid as supplemental treatment in schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(9), 1596–1598. ()
- Enns, J. E., Yeganeh, A., Zarychanski, R., Abou-Setta, A. M., Friesen, C., Zahradka, P., & Taylor, C. G. (2014). The impact of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on the incidence of cardiovascular events and complications in peripheral arterial disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, 14, 70. ()
- Epitropoulos, A. T., Donnenfeld, E. D., Shah, Z. A., Holland, E. J., Gross, M., Faulkner, W. J., Matossian, C., Lane, S. S., Toyos, M., Bucci, F. A., Jr, & Perry, H. D. (2016). Effect of oral re-esterified omega-3 nutritional supplementation on dry eyes. Cornea, 35(9), 1185–1191. ()
- Eritsland, J., Arnesen, H., Grønseth, K., Fjeld, N. B., & Abdelnoor, M. (1996). Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids on coronary artery bypass graft patency. The American Journal of Cardiology, 77(1), 31–36. ()
- Eritsland, J., Seljeflot, I., Abdelnoor, M., Arnesen, H., & Torjesen, P. A. (1994). Long-term effects of n-3 fatty acids on serum lipids and glycaemic control. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation, 54(4), 273–280. ()
- Eslick, G. D., Howe, P. R. C., Smith, C., Priest, R., & Bensoussan, A. (2009). Benefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Cardiology, 136(1), 4–16. ()
- Frangou, S., Lewis, M., & McCrone, P. (2006). Efficacy of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid in bipolar depression: Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 188, 46–50. ()
- Frangou, S., Lewis, M., Wollard, J., & Simmons, A. (2007). Preliminary in vivo evidence of increased N-acetyl-aspartate following eicosapentanoic acid treatment in patients with bipolar disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology , 21(4), 435–439. ()
- Freeman, M. P., Hibbeln, J. R., Wisner, K. L., Davis, J. M., Mischoulon, D., Peet, M., Keck, P. E., Jr, Marangell, L. B., Richardson, A. J., Lake, J., & Stoll, A. L. (2006). Omega-3 fatty acids: Evidence basis for treatment and future research in psychiatry. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(12), 1954–1967. ()
- Freund-Levi, Y., Basun, H., Cederholm, T., Faxén-Irving, G., Garlind, A., Grut, M., Vedin, I., Palmblad, J., Wahlund, L.-O., & Eriksdotter-Jönhagen, M. (2008). Omega-3 supplementation in mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease: Effects on neuropsychiatric symptoms. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(2), 161–169. ()
- Freund-Levi, Y., Eriksdotter-Jönhagen, M., Cederholm, T., Basun, H., Faxén-Irving, G., Garlind, A., Vedin, I., Vessby, B., Wahlund, L.-O., & Palmblad, J. (2006). Omega-3 fatty acid treatment in 174 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: OmegAD study: A randomized double-blind trial. Archives of Neurology, 63(10), 1402–1408. ()
- Friedberg, C. E., Janssen, M. J., Heine, R. J., & Grobbee, D. E. (1998). Fish oil and glycemic control in diabetes. A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care, 21(4), 494–500. ()
- Fristad, M. A., Young, A. S., Vesco, A. T., Nader, E. S., Healy, K. Z., Gardner, W., Wolfson, H. L., & Arnold, L. E. (2015). A randomized controlled trial of individual family psychoeducational psychotherapy and omega-3 fatty acids in youth with subsyndromal bipolar disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 25(10), 764–774. ()
- Furuhjelm, C., Jenmalm, M. C., Fälth-Magnusson, K., & Duchén, K. (2011). Th1 and Th2 chemokines, vaccine-induced immunity, and allergic disease in infants after maternal ω-3 fatty acid supplementation during pregnancy and lactation. Pediatric Research, 69(3), 259–264. ()
- Furuhjelm, C., Warstedt, K., Fagerås, M., Fälth-Magnusson, K., Larsson, J., Fredriksson, M., & Duchén, K. (2011). Allergic disease in infants up to 2 years of age in relation to plasma omega-3 fatty acids and maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy and lactation. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology: Official Publication of the European Society of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, 22(5), 505–514. ()
- Furuhjelm, C., Warstedt, K., Larsson, J., Fredriksson, M., Böttcher, M. F., Fälth-Magnusson, K., & Duchén, K. (2009). Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy and lactation may decrease the risk of infant allergy. Acta Paediatrica, 98(9), 1461–1467. ()
- Gajos, G., Rostoff, P., Undas, A., & Piwowarska, W. (2010). Effects of polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids on responsiveness to dual antiplatelet therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: The OMEGA-PCI (OMEGA-3 fatty acids after pci to modify responsiveness to dual antiplatelet therapy) study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 55(16), 1671–1678. ()
- Gajos, G., Zalewski, J., Rostoff, P., Nessler, J., Piwowarska, W., & Undas, A. (2011). Reduced thrombin formation and altered fibrin clot properties induced by polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids on top of dual antiplatelet therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (OMEGA-PCI clot). Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 31(7), 1696–1702. ()
- Gao, C., Liu, Y., Gan, Y., Bao, W., Peng, X., Xing, Q., Gao, H., Lai, J., Liu, L., Wang, Z., & Yang, Y. (2020). Effects of fish oil supplementation on glucose control and lipid levels among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Lipids in Health and Disease, 19(1), 87. ()
- Gao, L.-G., Cao, J., Mao, Q.-X., Lu, X.-C., Zhou, X.-L., & Fan, L. (2013). Influence of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid-supplementation on platelet aggregation in humans: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Atherosclerosis, 226(2), 328–334. ()
- Gapinski, J. P., VanRuiswyk, J. V., Heudebert, G. R., & Schectman, G. S. (1993). Preventing restenosis with fish oils following coronary angioplasty. A meta-analysis. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153(13), 1595–1601. ()
- Geleijnse, J. M., Giltay, E. J., Grobbee, D. E., Donders, A. R. T., & Kok, F. J. (2002). Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: Metaregression analysis of randomized trials. Journal of Hypertension, 20(8), 1493–1499. ()
- Ghasemi Fard, S., Wang, F., Sinclair, A. J., Elliott, G., & Turchini, G. M. (2019). How does high DHA fish oil affect health? A systematic review of evidence. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 59(11), 1684–1727. ()
- Giannaccare, G., Pellegrini, M., Sebastiani, S., Bernabei, F., Roda, M., Taroni, L., Versura, P., & Campos, E. C. (2019). Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for treatment of dry eye disease: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Cornea, 38(5), 565–573. ()
- Gillies, D., Sinn, J. K., Lad, S. S., Leach, M. J., & Ross, M. J. (2012). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 7, CD007986. ()
- Gioxari, A., Kaliora, A. C., Marantidou, F., & Panagiotakos, D. P. (2018). Intake of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition , 45, 114–124.e4. ()
- Goel, A., Pothineni, N. V., Singhal, M., Paydak, H., Saldeen, T., & Mehta, J. L. (2018). Fish, fish oils and cardioprotection: Promise or fish tale? International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(12). ()
- Goldberg, R. J., & Katz, J. (2007). A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain. Pain, 129(1-2), 210–223. ()
- Gould, J. F., Smithers, L. G., & Makrides, M. (2013). The effect of maternal omega-3 (n-3) LCPUFA supplementation during pregnancy on early childhood cognitive and visual development: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(3), 531–544. ()
- Gravina, L., Brown, F. F., Alexander, L., Dick, J., Bell, G., Witard, O. C., & Galloway, S. D. R. (2017). n-3 Fatty acid supplementation during 4 weeks of training leads to improved anaerobic endurance capacity, but not maximal strength, speed, or power in soccer players. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 27(4), 305–313. ()
- Green, P., Fuchs, J., Schoenfeld, N., Leibovici, L., Lurie, Y., Beigel, Y., Rotenberg, Z., Mamet, R., & Budowski, P. (1990). Effects of fish-oil ingestion on cardiovascular risk factors in hyperlipidemic subjects in Israel: A randomized, double-blind crossover study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52(6), 1118–1124. ()
- Grenon, S. M., Owens, C. D., Nosova, E. V., Hughes-Fulford, M., Alley, H. F., Chong, K., Perez, S., Yen, P. K., Boscardin, J., Hellmann, J., Spite, M., & Conte, M. S. (2015). Short-term, high-dose fish oil supplementation increases the production of omega-3 fatty acid-derived mediators in patients with peripheral artery disease (the omega-pad i trial). Journal of the American Heart Association, 4(8), e002034. ()
- Grosso, G., Pajak, A., Marventano, S., Castellano, S., Galvano, F., Bucolo, C., Drago, F., & Caraci, F. (2014). Role of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of depressive disorders: A comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. PloS One, 9(5), e96905. ()
- Gunaratne, A. W., Makrides, M., & Collins, C. T. (2015). Maternal prenatal and/or postnatal n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) supplementation for preventing allergies in early childhood. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 7, CD010085. ()
- Guo, X.-F., Yang, B., Tang, J., & Li, D. (2018). Fatty acid and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Meta-analyses of case-control and randomized controlled trials. Clinical Nutrition , 37(1), 113–122. ()
- Gustafsson, P. A., Birberg-Thornberg, U., Duchén, K., Landgren, M., Malmberg, K., Pelling, H., Strandvik, B., & Karlsson, T. (2010). EPA supplementation improves teacher-rated behaviour and oppositional symptoms in children with ADHD. Acta Paediatrica, 99(10), 1540–1549. ()
- Haberka, M., Mizia-Stec, K., Mizia, M., Janowska, J., Gieszczyk, K., Chmiel, A., Zahorska-Markiewicz, B., & Gąsior, Z. (2011). N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids early supplementation improves ultrasound indices of endothelial function, but not through NO inhibitors in patients with acute myocardial infarction: N-3 PUFA supplementation in acute myocardial infarction. Clinical Nutrition , 30(1), 79–85. ()
- Haghravan, S., Keshavarz, S. A., Mazaheri, R., Alizadeh, Z., & Mansournia, M. A. (2016). Effect of omega-3 pufas supplementation with lifestyle modification on anthropometric indices and vo2 max in overweight women. Archives of Iranian Medicine, 19(5), 342–347. ()
- Hallahan, B., Ryan, T., Hibbeln, J. R., Murray, I. T., Glynn, S., Ramsden, C. E., SanGiovanni, J. P., & Davis, J. M. (2016). Efficacy of omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 209(3), 192–201. ()
- Hansen, S., Strøm, M., Maslova, E., Dahl, R., Hoffmann, H. J., Rytter, D., Bech, B. H., Henriksen, T. B., Granström, C., Halldorsson, T. I., Chavarro, J. E., Linneberg, A., & Olsen, S. F. (2017). Fish oil supplementation during pregnancy and allergic respiratory disease in the adult offspring. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 139(1), 104–111.e4. ()
- Hanssens, L., Thiébaut, I., Lefèvre, N., Malfroot, A., Knoop, C., Duchateau, J., & Casimir, G. (2016). The clinical benefits of long-term supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids in cystic fibrosis patients - A pilot study. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 108, 45–50. ()
- Hardy, M. S., Kekic, A., Graybill, N. L., & Lancaster, Z. R. (2016). A systematic review of the association between fish oil supplementation and the development of asthma exacerbations. SAGE Open Medicine, 4, 2050312116666216. ()
- Harel, Z., Biro, F. M., Kottenhahn, R. K., & Rosenthal, S. L. (1996). Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of dysmenorrhea in adolescents. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174(4), 1335–1338. ()
- Harris, W. S., Dujovne, C. A., Zucker, M., & Johnson, B. (1988). Effects of a low saturated fat, low cholesterol fish oil supplement in hypertriglyceridemic patients. A placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 109(6), 465–470. ()
- Hartweg, J., Perera, R., Montori, V., Dinneen, S., Neil, H. A. W., & Farmer, A. (2008). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 1, CD003205. ()
- Harwood, J. L. (2019). Algae: Critical sources of very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biomolecules, 9(11). ()
- Hashemipour, M. A., Barzegari, S., Kakoie, S., & Aghahi, R. H. (2017). Effects of omega-3 fatty acids against chemotherapy-induced mucositis: A double-blind randomized clinical trial. Wounds : A Compendium of Clinical Research and Practice, 29(12), 360–366. ()
- Hawkey, E., & Nigg, J. T. (2014). Omega-3 fatty acid and ADHD: Blood level analysis and meta-analytic extension of supplementation trials. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(6), 496–505. ()
- He, L., Li, M.-S., Lin, M., Zhao, T.-Y., & Gao, P. (2016). Effect of fish oil supplement in maintenance hemodialysis patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 72(2), 129–139. ()
- He, X.-X., Wu, X.-L., Chen, R.-P., Chen, C., Liu, X.-G., Wu, B.-J., & Huang, Z.-M. (2016). Effectiveness of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PloS One, 11(10), e0162368. ()
- He, Z., Yang, L., Tian, J., Yang, K., Wu, J., & Yao, Y. (2013). Efficacy and safety of omega-3 fatty acids for the prevention of atrial fibrillation: A meta-analysis. The Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 29(2), 196–203. ()
- Hill, C. L., March, L. M., Aitken, D., Lester, S. E., Battersby, R., Hynes, K., Fedorova, T., Proudman, S. M., James, M., Cleland, L. G., & Jones, G. (2016). Fish oil in knee osteoarthritis: A randomised clinical trial of low dose versus high dose. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 75(1), 23–29. ()
- Hingley, L., Macartney, M. J., Brown, M. A., McLennan, P. L., & Peoples, G. E. (2017). DHA-rich fish oil increases the omega-3 index and lowers the oxygen cost of physiologically stressful cycling in trained individuals. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 27(4), 335–343. ()
- Hirashima, F., Parow, A. M., Stoll, A. L., Demopulos, C. M., Damico, K. E., Rohan, M. L., Eskesen, J. G., Zuo, C. S., Cohen, B. M., & Renshaw, P. F. (2004). Omega-3 fatty acid treatment and T(2) whole brain relaxation times in bipolar disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(10), 1922–1924. ()
- Holm, T., Andreassen, A. K., Aukrust, P., Andersen, K., Geiran, O. R., Kjekshus, J., Simonsen, S., & Gullestad, L. (2001). Omega-3 fatty acids improve blood pressure control and preserve renal function in hypertensive heart transplant recipients. European Heart Journal, 22(5), 428–436. ()
- Homan van der Heide, J. J., Bilo, H. J., Donker, A. J., Wilmink, J. M., Sluiter, W. J., & Tegzess, A. M. (1992). The effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil on renal function and the course of early postoperative rejection episodes in cyclosporine-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation, 54(2), 257–263. ()
- Homan van der Heide, J. J., Bilo, H. J., Tegzess, A. M., & Donker, A. J. (1990). The effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil on renal function in cyclosporine-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation, 49(3), 523–527. ()
- Horvath, A., Łukasik, J., & Szajewska, H. (2017). ω-3 Fatty acid supplementation does not affect autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Nutrition, 147(3), 367–376. ()
- Hosseinlou, A., Alinejad, V., Alinejad, M., & Aghakhani, N. (2014). The effects of fish oil capsules and vitamin B1 tablets on duration and severity of dysmenorrhea in students of high school in Urmia-Iran. Global Journal of Health Science, 6(7 Spec), 124–129. ()
- Hu, J., Liu, Z., & Zhang, H. (2017). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation as an adjunctive therapy in the treatment of chronic kidney disease: A meta-analysis. Clinics , 72(1), 58–64. ()
- Hu, Y., Hu, F. B., & Manson, J. E. (2019). Marine omega-3 supplementation and cardiovascular disease: An updated meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials involving 127 477 participants. Journal of the American Heart Association, 8(19), e013543. ()
- Huang, S.-Y., Sabrina, N., Chien, Y.-W., Chen, Y.-C., Lin, S.-H., & Chang, J.-S. (2018). A moderate interleukin-6 reduction, not a moderate weight reduction, improves the serum iron status in diet-induced weight loss with fish oil supplementation. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 62(20), e1800243. ()
- Hutchins-Wiese, H. L., Picho, K., Watkins, B. A., Li, Y., Tannenbaum, S., Claffey, K., & Kenny, A. M. (2014). High-dose eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid supplementation reduces bone resorption in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors on aromatase inhibitors: A pilot study. Nutrition and Cancer, 66(1), 68–76. ()
- Ibrahim, F. A. S., Ghebremeskel, K., Abdel-Rahman, M. E., Ahmed, A. A. M., Mohmed, I. M., Osman, G., Elseed, M., Hamed, A., Rabinowicz, A. L., Salih, M. A. M., Elbashir, M. I., & Daak, A. A. (2018). The differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on seizure frequency in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy - A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsy & Behavior: E&B, 87, 32–38. ()
- Imhoff-Kunsch, B., Briggs, V., Goldenberg, T., & Ramakrishnan, U. (2012). Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during pregnancy on maternal, infant, and child health outcomes: A systematic review. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 26 Suppl 1, 91–107. ()
- Iqbal, J., & Hussain, M. M. (2009). Intestinal lipid absorption. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism, 296(6), E1183–E1194. ()
- Jabbari, M., Khoshnevis, T., Jenabi, A., & Yousefi, F. (2016). The effect of omega-3 supplement on serum lipid profile in patients undergoing hemodialysis: A randomized clinical trial. Romanian Journal of Internal Medicine, 54(4), 222–227. ()
- Jacobson, T. A. (2007). Beyond lipids: The role of omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil in the prevention of coronary heart disease. Current Atherosclerosis Reports, 9(2), 145–153. ()
- Jacobson, T. A. (2008). Role of n-3 fatty acids in the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia and cardiovascular disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87(6), 1981S–90S. ()
- James, S., Montgomery, P., & Williams, K. (2011). Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 11, CD007992. ()
- Jamilian, H., Solhi, H., & Jamilian, M. (2014). Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of omega-3 as supplemental treatment in schizophrenia. Global Journal of Health Science, 6(7 Spec), 103–108. ()
- Jasani, B., Simmer, K., Patole, S. K., & Rao, S. C. (2017). Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants born at term. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 3, CD000376. ()
- Jensen, C. L., Voigt, R. G., Prager, T. C., Zou, Y. L., Fraley, J. K., Rozelle, J. C., Turcich, M. R., Llorente, A. M., Anderson, R. E., & Heird, W. C. (2005). Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function and neurodevelopment in breastfed term infants. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82(1), 125–132. ()
- Ji, X.-J., Ren, L.-J., & Huang, H. (2015). Omega-3 biotechnology: A green and sustainable process for omega-3 fatty acids production. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 3, 158. ()
- Jiang, J., Li, K., Wang, F., Yang, B., Fu, Y., Zheng, J., & Li, D. (2016). Effect of marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on major eicosanoids: A systematic review and meta-analysis from 18 randomized controlled trials. PloS One, 11(1), e0147351. ()
- Jiao, J., Li, Q., Chu, J., Zeng, W., Yang, M., & Zhu, S. (2014). Effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation on cognitive function throughout the life span from infancy to old age: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(6), 1422–1436. ()
- Johnsen, S. H., Jacobsen, B. K., Brækkan, S. K., Hansen, J.-B., & Mathiesen, E. B. (2018). Fish consumption, fish oil supplements and risk of atherosclerosis in the Tromsø study. Nutrition Journal, 17(1), 56. ()
- Joy, C. B., Mumby-Croft, R., & Joy, L. A. (2006). Polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 3, CD001257. ()
- Kanat, O., Cubukcu, E., Avci, N., Budak, F., Ercan, I., Canhoroz, M., & Olmez, F. (2013). Comparison of three different treatment modalities in the management of cancer cachexia. Tumori, 99(2), 229–233. ()
- Kar, S., Wong, M., Rogozinska, E., & Thangaratinam, S. (2016). Effects of omega-3 fatty acids in prevention of early preterm delivery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized studies. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, 198, 40–46. ()
- Karimi, M., Vedin, I., Freund Levi, Y., Basun, H., Faxén Irving, G., Eriksdotter, M., Wahlund, L.-O., Schultzberg, M., Hjorth, E., Cederholm, T., & Palmblad, J. (2017). DHA-rich n-3 fatty acid supplementation decreases DNA methylation in blood leukocytes: The OmegAD study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 106(4), 1157–1165. ()
- Kelley, D. S., Adkins, Y., Woodhouse, L. R., Swislocki, A., Mackey, B. E., & Siegel, D. (2012). Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improved lipocentric but not glucocentric markers of insulin sensitivity in hypertriglyceridemic men. Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders, 10(1), 32–38. ()
- Kelley, D. S., Siegel, D., Fedor, D. M., Adkins, Y., & Mackey, B. E. (2009). DHA supplementation decreases serum C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in hypertriglyceridemic men. The Journal of Nutrition, 139(3), 495–501. ()
- Kelley, D. S., Siegel, D., Vemuri, M., & Mackey, B. E. (2007). Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improves fasting and postprandial lipid profiles in hypertriglyceridemic men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 86(2), 324–333. ()
- Keshavarz, S. A., Mostafavi, S.-A., Akhondzadeh, S., Mohammadi, M. R., Hosseini, S., Eshraghian, M. R., & Chamari, M. (2018). Omega-3 supplementation effects on body weight and depression among dieter women with co-morbidity of depression and obesity compared with the placebo: A randomized clinical trial. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN, 25, 37–43. ()
- Khawaja, O., Gaziano, J. M., & Djoussé, L. (2012). A meta-analysis of omega-3 fatty acids and incidence of atrial fibrillation. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 31(1), 4–13. ()
- Kim, M. G., Yang, I., Lee, H. S., Lee, J.-Y., & Kim, K. (2020). Lipid-modifying effects of krill oil vs fish oil: A network meta-analysis. Nutrition Reviews. ()
- Klemens, C. M., Berman, D. R., & Mozurkewich, E. L. (2011). The effect of perinatal omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on inflammatory markers and allergic diseases: A systematic review. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 118(8), 916–925. ()
- Koh, K. K., Quon, M. J., Shin, K.-C., Lim, S., Lee, Y., Sakuma, I., Lee, K., Han, S. H., & Shin, E. K. (2012). Significant differential effects of omega-3 fatty acids and fenofibrate in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Atherosclerosis, 220(2), 537–544. ()
- Köhler, A., Sarkkinen, E., Tapola, N., Niskanen, T., & Bruheim, I. (2015). Bioavailability of fatty acids from krill oil, krill meal and fish oil in healthy subjects--A randomized, single-dose, cross-over trial. Lipids in Health and Disease, 14, 19. ()
- Konagai, C., Yanagimoto, K., Hayamizu, K., Han, L., Tsuji, T., & Koga, Y. (2013). Effects of krill oil containing n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in phospholipid form on human brain function: A randomized controlled trial in healthy elderly volunteers. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 8, 1247–1257. ()
- Kones, R., Howell, S., & Rumana, U. (2017). n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: principles, practices, pitfalls, and promises - A contemporary review. Medical Principles and Practice: International Journal of the Kuwait University, Health Science Centre, 26(6), 497–508. ()
- Kraguljac, N. V., Montori, V. M., Pavuluri, M., Chai, H. S., Wilson, B. S., & Unal, S. S. (2009). Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids in mood disorders - A systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 42(3), 39–54. ()
- Krauss-Etschmann, S., Hartl, D., Rzehak, P., Heinrich, J., Shadid, R., Del Carmen Ramírez-Tortosa, M., Campoy, C., Pardillo, S., Schendel, D. J., Decsi, T., Demmelmair, H., Koletzko, B. V., & Nutraceuticals for Healthier Life Study Group. (2008). Decreased cord blood IL-4, IL-13, and CCR4 and increased TGF-beta levels after fish oil supplementation of pregnant women. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 121(2), 464–470.e6. ()
- Kremmyda, L.-S., Vlachava, M., Noakes, P. S., Diaper, N. D., Miles, E. A., & Calder, P. C. (2011). Atopy risk in infants and children in relation to early exposure to fish, oily fish, or long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: A systematic review. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology, 41(1), 36–66. ()
- Kruse, A. B., Kowalski, C. D., Leuthold, S., Vach, K., Ratka-Krüger, P., & Woelber, J. P. (2020). What is the impact of the adjunctive use of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of periodontitis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lipids in Health and Disease, 19(1), 100. ()
- Kujur, S. K., Goswami, V., Nikunj, A. M., Singh, G., Bandhe, S., & Ghritlahre, H. (2020). Efficacy of omega 3 fatty acid as an adjunct in the management of chronic periodontitis: A randomized controlled trial. Indian Journal of Dental Research: Official Publication of Indian Society for Dental Research, 31(2), 229–235. ()
- Kumar, S., Sutherland, F., Teh, A. W., Heck, P. M., Lee, G., Garg, M. L., & Sparks, P. B. (2011). Effects of chronic omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on human pulmonary vein and left atrial electrophysiology in paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. The American Journal of Cardiology, 108(4), 531–535. ()
- Lane, K., Derbyshire, E., Li, W., & Brennan, C. (2014). Bioavailability and potential uses of vegetarian sources of omega-3 fatty acids: A review of the literature. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 54(5), 572–579. ()
- Langlois, P. L., Hardy, G., & Manzanares, W. (2017). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in cardiac surgery patients: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition , 36(3), 737–746. ()
- Lapointe, J.-F., Harvey, L., Aziz, S., Jordan, H., Hegele, R. A., & Lemieux, P. (2019). A Single-dose, comparative bioavailability study of a formulation containing om3 as phospholipid and free fatty acid to an ethyl ester formulation in the fasting and fed states. Clinical Therapeutics, 41(3), 426–444. ()
- Lee, Y.-H., Bae, S.-C., & Song, G.-G. (2012). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: A meta-analysis. Archives of Medical Research, 43(5), 356–362. ()
- León, H., Shibata, M. C., Sivakumaran, S., Dorgan, M., Chatterley, T., & Tsuyuki, R. T. (2008). Effect of fish oil on arrhythmias and mortality: Systematic review. BMJ , 337, a2931. ()
- Lev-Tzion, R., Griffiths, A. M., Leder, O., & Turner, D. (2014). Omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil) for maintenance of remission in Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 2, CD006320. ()
- Lewis, A., Lookinland, S., Beckstrand, R. L., & Tiedeman, M. E. (2004). Treatment of hypertriglyceridemia with omega-3 fatty acids: A systematic review. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 16(9), 384–395. ()
- ewis, N. A., Daniels, D., Calder, P. C., Castell, L. M., & Pedlar, C. R. (2020). Are there benefits from the use of fish oil supplements in athletes? A systematic review. Advances in Nutrition. ()
- Liao, Y., Xie, B., Zhang, H., He, Q., Guo, L., Subramaniapillai, M., Fan, B., Lu, C., & Mclntyer, R. S. (2019). Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: A meta-analysis. Translational Psychiatry, 9(1), 190. ()
- Lim, A. K. H., Manley, K. J., Roberts, M. A., & Fraenkel, M. B. (2016). Fish oil for kidney transplant recipients. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 8, CD005282. ()
- Lin, P.-Y., & Su, K.-P. (2007). A meta-analytic review of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of antidepressant efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68(7), 1056–1061. ()
- Liu, L.-L., & Wang, L.-N. (2012). ω-3 fatty acids therapy for IgA nephropathy: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Nephrology, 77(2), 119–125. ()
- Liu, T., Korantzopoulos, P., Shehata, M., Li, G., Wang, X., & Kaul, S. (2011). Prevention of atrial fibrillation with omega-3 fatty acids: A meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials. Heart , 97(13), 1034–1040. ()
- Lovegrove, J. A., Lovegrove, S. S., Lesauvage, S. V. M., Brady, L. M., Saini, N., Minihane, A. M., & Williams, C. M. (2004). Moderate fish-oil supplementation reverses low-platelet, long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid status and reduces plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in British Indo-Asians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79(6), 974–982. ()
- Lucas, M., Asselin, G., Mérette, C., Poulin, M.-J., & Dodin, S. (2009a). Ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of psychological distress and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(2), 641–651. ()
- Lucas, M., Asselin, G., Mérette, C., Poulin, M.-J., & Dodin, S. (2009b). Effects of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on hot flashes and quality of life among middle-aged women: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Menopause , 16(2), 357–366. ()
- Maghsoumi-Norouzabad, L., Mansoori, A., Abed, R., & Shishehbor, F. (2018). Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on the frequency, severity, and duration of migraine attacks: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutritional Neuroscience, 21(9), 614–623. ()
- Maki, K. C., & Dicklin, M. R. (2019). Strategies to improve bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids from ethyl ester concentrates. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 22(2), 116–123. ()
- Maki, K. C., Palacios, O. M., Bell, M., & Toth, P. P. (2017). Use of supplemental long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and risk for cardiac death: An updated meta-analysis and review of research gaps. Journal of Clinical Lipidology, 11(5), 1152–1160.e2. ()
- Maki, K. C., Yurko-Mauro, K., Dicklin, M. R., Schild, A. L., & Geohas, J. G. (2014). A new, microalgal DHA- and EPA-containing oil lowers triacylglycerols in adults with mild-to-moderate hypertriglyceridemia. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 91(4), 141–148. ()
- Manor, I., Magen, A., Keidar, D., Rosen, S., Tasker, H., Cohen, T., Richter, Y., Zaaroor-Regev, D., Manor, Y., & Weizman, A. (2012). The effect of phosphatidylserine containing Omega3 fatty-acids on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children: A double-blind placebo-controlled trial, followed by an open-label extension. European Psychiatry: The Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 27(5), 335–342. ()
- Maresta, A., Balduccelli, M., Varani, E., Marzilli, M., Galli, C., Heiman, F., Lavezzari, M., Stragliotto, E., De Caterina, R., & ESPRIT Investigators. (2002). Prevention of postcoronary angioplasty restenosis by omega-3 fatty acids: Main results of the Esapent for Prevention of Restenosis ITalian Study (ESPRIT). American Heart Journal, 143(6), E5. ()
- Mariani, J., Doval, H. C., Nul, D., Varini, S., Grancelli, H., Ferrante, D., Tognoni, G., & Macchia, A. (2013). N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to prevent atrial fibrillation: Updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of the American Heart Association, 2(1), e005033. ()
- Martí Del Moral, A., & Fortique, F. (2019). Omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive decline: A systematic review. Nutricion Hospitalaria: Organo Oficial de La Sociedad Espanola de Nutricion Parenteral Y Enteral, 36(4), 939–949. ()
- Martins, J. G. (2009). EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: Evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 28(5), 525–542. ()
- Mas, E., Barden, A., Burke, V., Beilin, L. J., Watts, G. F., Huang, R.-C., Puddey, I. B., Irish, A. B., & Mori, T. A. (2016). A randomized controlled trial of the effects of n-3 fatty acids on resolvins in chronic kidney disease. Clinical Nutrition , 35(2), 331–336. ()
- Masson, S., Latini, R., Tacconi, M., & Bernasconi, R. (2007). Incorporation and washout of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after diet supplementation in clinical studies. Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine , 8 Suppl 1, S4–S10. ()
- Mazahery, H., Conlon, C. A., Beck, K. L., Mugridge, O., Kruger, M. C., Stonehouse, W., Camargo, C. A., Jr, Meyer, B. J., Jones, B., & von Hurst, P. R. (2019). A randomised controlled trial of vitamin D and omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of irritability and hyperactivity among children with autism spectrum disorder. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 187, 9–16. ()
- Mazahery, H., Conlon, C. A., Beck, K. L., Mugridge, O., Kruger, M. C., Stonehouse, W., Camargo, C. A., Jr, Meyer, B. J., Tsang, B., Jones, B., & von Hurst, P. R. (2019). A randomised-controlled trial of vitamin d and omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder in children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(5), 1778–1794. ()
- Mazereeuw, G., Lanctôt, K. L., Chau, S. A., Swardfager, W., & Herrmann, N. (2012). Effects of ω-3 fatty acids on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(7), 1482.e17–e29. ()
- Mazzotta, P., & Jeney, C. M. (2009). Anorexia-cachexia syndrome: A systematic review of the role of dietary polyunsaturated Fatty acids in the management of symptoms, survival, and quality of life. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 37(6), 1069–1077. ()
- Melanson, S. F., Lewandrowski, E. L., Flood, J. G., & Lewandrowski, K. B. (2005). Measurement of organochlorines in commercial over-the-counter fish oil preparations: Implications for dietary and therapeutic recommendations for omega-3 fatty acids and a review of the literature. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, 129(1), 74–77. ()
- Mickleborough, T. D., Lindley, M. R., Ionescu, A. A., & Fly, A. D. (2006). Protective effect of fish oil supplementation on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in asthma. Chest, 129(1), 39–49. ()
- Middleton, P., Gomersall, J. C., Gould, J. F., Shepherd, E., Olsen, S. F., & Makrides, M. (2018). Omega-3 fatty acid addition during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 11, CD003402. ()
- Miles, E. A., & Calder, P. C. (2012). Influence of marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on immune function and a systematic review of their effects on clinical outcomes in rheumatoid arthritis. The British Journal of Nutrition, 107 Suppl 2, S171–S184. ()
- Miles, E. A., & Calder, P. C. (2017). Can early omega-3 fatty acid exposure reduce risk of childhood allergic disease? Nutrients, 9(7). ()
- Miller, P. E., Van Elswyk, M., & Alexander, D. D. (2014). Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid and blood pressure: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Hypertension, 27(7), 885–896. ()
- Milte, C. M., Parletta, N., Buckley, J. D., Coates, A. M., Young, R. M., & Howe, P. R. C. (2012). Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, cognition, and behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Nutrition , 28(6), 670–677. ()
- Milte, C. M., Parletta, N., Buckley, J. D., Coates, A. M., Young, R. M., & Howe, P. R. C. (2015). Increased erythrocyte eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid are associated with improved attention and behavior in children with ADHD in a randomized controlled three-way crossover trial. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(11), 954–964. ()
- Minihane, A. M., Khan, S., Leigh-Firbank, E. C., Talmud, P., Wright, J. W., Murphy, M. C., ... & Williams, C. M. (2000). ApoE polymorphism and fish oil supplementation in subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular biology, 20(8), 1990-1997. ()
- Mocking, R. J. T., Harmsen, I., Assies, J., Koeter, M. W. J., Ruhé, H. G., & Schene, A. H. (2016). Meta-analysis and meta-regression of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for major depressive disorder. Translational Psychiatry, 6, e756. ()
- Moeinzadeh, F., Shahidi, S., Mortazavi, M., Dolatkhah, S., Kajbaf, M., Haghjooy Javanmard, S., & Moghtaderi, A. (2016). Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on serum biomarkers, inflammatory agents, and quality of life of patients on hemodialysis. Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases, 10(6), 381–387. ()
- Moghadamnia, A. A., Mirhosseini, N., Abadi, M. H., Omranirad, A., & Omidvar, S. (2010). Effect of Clupeonella grimmi (anchovy/kilka) fish oil on dysmenorrhoea. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 16(4), 408–413. ()
- Mohammady, M., Janani, L., Jahanfar, S., & Mousavi, M. S. (2018). Effect of omega-3 supplements on vasomotor symptoms in menopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, 228, 295–302. ()
- Montori, V. M., Farmer, A., Wollan, P. C., & Dinneen, S. F. (2000). Fish oil supplementation in type 2 diabetes: A quantitative systematic review. Diabetes Care, 23(9), 1407–1415. ()
- Morin, C., Cantin, A. M., Vézina, F.-A., & Fortin, S. (2018). The efficacy of MAG-DHA for correcting AA/DHA imbalance of cystic fibrosis patients. Marine Drugs, 16(6). ()
- Morris, M. C., Sacks, F., & Rosner, B. (1993). Does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Circulation, 88(2), 523–533. ()
- Mossaheb, N., Papageorgiou, K., Schäfer, M. R., Becker, J., Schloegelhofer, M., & Amminger, G. P. (2018). Changes in triglyceride levels in ultra-high risk for psychosis individuals treated with omega-3 fatty acids. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 12(1), 30–36. ()
- Mossaheb, N., Schäfer, M. R., Schlögelhofer, M., Klier, C. M., Cotton, S. M., McGorry, P. D., & Amminger, G. P. (2013). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids for indicated prevention of young patients at risk for psychosis: When do they begin to be effective? Schizophrenia Research, 148(1-3), 163–167. ()
- Munro, I. A., & Garg, M. L. (2013). Prior supplementation with long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids promotes weight loss in obese adults: A double-blinded randomised controlled trial. Food & Function, 4(4), 650–658. ()
- Murru, E., Banni, S., & Carta, G. (2013). Nutritional properties of dietary omega-3-enriched phospholipids. BioMed Research International, 2013, 965417. ()
- Musa-Veloso, K., Venditti, C., Lee, H. Y., Darch, M., Floyd, S., West, S., & Simon, R. (2018). Systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled intervention studies on the effectiveness of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nutrition Reviews, 76(8), 581–602. ()
- Naber, F. B., Oudkerk Pool, M., Teerlink, T., Popp-Snijders, C., Gans, R. O., & Bilo, H. J. (1992). [Effect of short-term use of omega-3-type polyunsaturated fatty acids in subjects with hypertriglyceridemia]. Nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde, 136(31), 1511–1514. ()
- Nagakura, T., Matsuda, S., Shichijyo, K., Sugimoto, H., & Hata, K. (2000). Dietary supplementation with fish oil rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with bronchial asthma. The European Respiratory Journal: Official Journal of the European Society for Clinical Respiratory Physiology, 16(5), 861–865. ()
- Naqvi, A. Z., Hasturk, H., Mu, L., Phillips, R. S., Davis, R. B., Halem, S., Campos, H., Goodson, J. M., Van Dyke, T. E., & Mukamal, K. J. (2014). Docosahexaenoic acid and periodontitis in adults: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Dental Research, 93(8), 767–773. ()
- Naqvi, A. Z., Mu, L., Hasturk, H., Van Dyke, T. E., Mukamal, K. J., & Goodson, J. M. (2017). Impact of docosahexaenoic acid therapy on subgingival plaque microbiota. Journal of Periodontology, 88(9), 887–895. ()
- O’Connor, G. T., Malenka, D. J., Olmstead, E. M., Johnson, P. S., & Hennekens, C. H. (1992). A meta-analysis of randomized trials of fish oil in prevention of restenosis following coronary angioplasty. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 8(3), 186–192. ()
- Ochi, E., Tsuchiya, Y., & Yanagimoto, K. (2017). Effect of eicosapentaenoic acids-rich fish oil supplementation on motor nerve function after eccentric contractions. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 23. ()
- Oelrich, B., Dewell, A., & Gardner, C. D. (2013). Effect of fish oil supplementation on serum triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and LDL subfractions in hypertriglyceridemic adults. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases: NMCD, 23(4), 350–357. ()
- Offman, E., Davidson, M., Abu-Rashid, M., Chai, P., & Nilsson, C. (2017). Systemic bioavailability and dose proportionality of omega-3 administered in free fatty acid form compared with ethyl ester form: Results of a phase 1 study in healthy volunteers. European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, 42(5), 815–825. ()
- Okumura, T., Fujioka, Y., Morimoto, S., Tsuboi, S., Masai, M., Tsujino, T., Ohyanagi, M., & Iwasaki, T. (2002). Eicosapentaenoic acid improves endothelial function in hypertriglyceridemic subjects despite increased lipid oxidizability. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 324(5), 247–253. ()
- Oliveira, J. M., & Rondó, P. H. C. (2011). Omega-3 fatty acids and hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy: Systematic review and meta-analysis. HIV Clinical Trials, 12(5), 268–274. ()
- Olsen, S. F., Østerdal, M. L., Salvig, J. D., Mortensen, L. M., Rytter, D., Secher, N. J., & Henriksen, T. B. (2008). Fish oil intake compared with olive oil intake in late pregnancy and asthma in the offspring: 16 y of registry-based follow-up from a randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 88(1), 167–175. ()
- Omrani, S., Taheri, M., Omrani, M. D., Arsang-Jang, S., & Ghafouri-Fard, S. (2019). The effect of omega-3 fatty acids on clinical and paraclinical features of intractable epileptic patients: A triple blind randomized clinical trial. Clinical and Translational Medicine, 8(1), 3. ()
- Ostadrahimi, A., Mohammad-Alizadeh, S., Mirghafourvand, M., Farshbaf-Khalili, S., Jafarilar-Agdam, N., & Farshbaf-Khalili, A. (2017). The effect of fish oil supplementation on maternal and neonatal outcomes: A triple-blind, randomized controlled trial. Journal of Perinatal Medicine, 45(9), 1069–1077. ()
- Ostadrahimi, A., Salehi-Pourmehr, H., Mohammad-Alizadeh-Charandabi, S., Heidarabady, S., & Farshbaf-Khalili, A. (2018). The effect of perinatal fish oil supplementation on neurodevelopment and growth of infants: A randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Nutrition, 57(7), 2387–2397. ()
- Palmer, D. J., Sullivan, T., Gold, M. S., Prescott, S. L., Heddle, R., Gibson, R. A., & Makrides, M. (2012). Effect of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on infants’ allergies in first year of life: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ , 344, e184. ()
- Papanikolaou, Y., Brooks, J., Reider, C., & Fulgoni, V. L., 3rd. (2014). U.S. adults are not meeting recommended levels for fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake: results of an analysis using observational data from NHANES 2003-2008. Nutrition Journal, 13, 31. ()
- Parker, H. M., Johnson, N. A., Burdon, C. A., Cohn, J. S., O’Connor, H. T., & George, J. (2012). Omega-3 supplementation and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Hepatology, 56(4), 944–951. ()
- Patel, A. A., & Budoff, M. J. (2016). Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on lipoproteins in hypertriglyceridemia. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity, 23(2), 145–149. ()
- Pawełczyk, T., Grancow-Grabka, M., Kotlicka-Antczak, M., Trafalska, E., & Pawełczyk, A. (2016). A randomized controlled study of the efficacy of six-month supplementation with concentrated fish oil rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in first episode schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 73, 34–44. ()
- Pawełczyk, T., Grancow-Grabka, M., Trafalska, E., Szemraj, J., & Pawełczyk, A. (2017). Oxidative stress reduction related to the efficacy of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in first episode schizophrenia: Secondary outcome analysis of the OFFER randomized trial. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 121, 7–13. ()
- Pawełczyk, T., Grancow-Grabka, M., Trafalska, E., Szemraj, J., Żurner, N., & Pawełczyk, A. (2018). Telomerase level increase is related to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid efficacy in first episode schizophrenia: Secondary outcome analysis of the OFFER randomized clinical trial. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 83, 142–148. ()
- Pawełczyk, T., Grancow-Grabka, M., Trafalska, E., Szemraj, J., Żurner, N., & Pawełczyk, A. (2019). An increase in plasma brain derived neurotrophic factor levels is related to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid efficacy in first episode schizophrenia: Secondary outcome analysis of the OFFER randomized clinical trial. Psychopharmacology, 236(9), 2811–2822. ()
- Pawełczyk, T., Piątkowska-Janko, E., Bogorodzki, P., Gębski, P., Grancow-Grabka, M., Trafalska, E., Żurner, N., & Pawełczyk, A. (2018). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation may prevent loss of gray matter thickness in the left parieto-occipital cortex in first episode schizophrenia: A secondary outcome analysis of the OFFER randomized controlled study. Schizophrenia Research, 195, 168–175. ()
- Payahoo, L., Ostadrahimi, A., Farrin, N., & Khaje-Bishak, Y. (2018). Effects of n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on serum leptin levels, appetite sensations, and intake of energy and macronutrients in obese people: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Dietary Supplements, 15(5), 596–605. ()
- Peet, M., Brind, J., Ramchand, C. N., Shah, S., & Vankar, G. K. (2001). Two double-blind placebo-controlled pilot studies of eicosapentaenoic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 49(3), 243–251. ()
- Peoples, G. E., McLennan, P. L., Howe, P. R. C., & Groeller, H. (2008). Fish oil reduces heart rate and oxygen consumption during exercise. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, 52(6), 540–547. ()
- Persson, C., Glimelius, B., Rönnelid, J., & Nygren, P. (2005). Impact of fish oil and melatonin on cachexia in patients with advanced gastrointestinal cancer: A randomized pilot study. Nutrition , 21(2), 170–178. ()
- Prego-Dominguez, J., Hadrya, F., & Takkouche, B. (2016). Polyunsaturated fatty acids and chronic pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain Physician, 19(8), 521–535. ()
- Prescott, S. L., Barden, A. E., Mori, T. A., & Dunstan, J. A. (2007). Maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal leukotriene production by cord-blood-derived neutrophils. Clinical Science , 113(10), 409–416. ()
- Puri, B. K., & Martins, J. G. (2014). Which polyunsaturated fatty acids are active in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder receiving PUFA supplementation? A fatty acid validated meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 90(5), 179–189. ()
- Rahbar, N., Asgharzadeh, N., & Ghorbani, R. (2012). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on intensity of primary dysmenorrhea. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics: The Official Organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 117(1), 45–47. ()
- Ramakrishnan, U., Gonzalez-Casanova, I., Schnaas, L., DiGirolamo, A., Quezada, A. D., Pallo, B. C., Hao, W., Neufeld, L. M., Rivera, J. A., Stein, A. D., & Martorell, R. (2016). Prenatal supplementation with DHA improves attention at 5 y of age: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 104(4), 1075–1082. ()
- Ramirez, J. L., Gasper, W. J., Khetani, S. A., Zahner, G. J., Hills, N. K., Mitchell, P. T., Sansbury, B. E., Conte, M. S., Spite, M., & Grenon, S. M. (2019). Fish oil increases specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators in pad (The OMEGA-PAD II Trial). The Journal of Surgical Research, 238, 164–174. ()
- Ramprasath, V. R., Eyal, I., Zchut, S., & Jones, P. J. H. (2013). Enhanced increase of omega-3 index in healthy individuals with response to 4-week n-3 fatty acid supplementation from krill oil versus fish oil. Lipids in Health and Disease, 12, 178. ()
- Rangel-Huerta, O. D., & Gil, A. (2018). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cognition: An updated systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Nutrition Reviews, 76(1), 1–20. ()
- Reda, D. M. A., Abd-El-Fatah, N. K., Omar, T. E.-S. I., & Darwish, O. A. H. (2015). Fish oil intake and seizure control in children with medically resistant epilepsy. North American Journal of Medical Sciences, 7(7), 317–321. ()
- Reis, C. E. G., Landim, K. C., Nunes, A. C. S., & Dullius, J. (2014). Safety in the hypertriglyceridemia treatment with N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on glucose metabolism in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutricion Hospitalaria: Organo Oficial de La Sociedad Espanola de Nutricion Parenteral Y Enteral, 31(2), 570–576. ()
- Reisman, J., Schachter, H. M., Dales, R. E., Tran, K., Kourad, K., Barnes, D., Sampson, M., Morrison, A., Gaboury, I., & Blackman, J. (2006). Treating asthma with omega-3 fatty acids: Where is the evidence? A systematic review. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 6, 26. ()
- Richardson, A. J., Burton, J. R., Sewell, R. P., Spreckelsen, T. F., & Montgomery, P. (2012). Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, cognition and behavior in children aged 7-9 years: A randomized, controlled trial (the DOLAB Study). PloS One, 7(9), e43909. ()
- Ries, A., Trottenberg, P., Elsner, F., Stiel, S., Haugen, D., Kaasa, S., & Radbruch, L. (2012). A systematic review on the role of fish oil for the treatment of cachexia in advanced cancer: An EPCRC cachexia guidelines project. Palliative Medicine, 26(4), 294–304. ()
- Rizos, E. C., & Elisaf, M. S. (2017). Does supplementation with omega-3 pufas add to the prevention of cardiovascular disease? Current Cardiology Reports, 19(6), 47. ()
- Robinson, D. G., Gallego, J. A., John, M., Hanna, L. A., Zhang, J.-P., Birnbaum, M. L., Greenberg, J., Naraine, M., Peters, B. D., McNamara, R. K., Malhotra, A. K., & Szeszko, P. R. (2019). A potential role for adjunctive omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for depression and anxiety symptoms in recent onset psychosis: Results from a 16 week randomized placebo-controlled trial for participants concurrently treated with risperidone. Schizophrenia Research, 204, 295–303. ()
- Romero, V. C., Somers, E. C., Stolberg, V., Clinton, C., Chensue, S., Djuric, Z., Berman, D. R., Treadwell, M. C., Vahratian, A. M., & Mozurkewich, E. (2013). Developmental programming for allergy: A secondary analysis of the Mothers, Omega-3, and Mental Health Study. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 208(4), 316.e1–e6. ()
- Rutkofsky, I. H., Khan, A. S., Sahito, S., & Kumar, V. (2017). The psychoneuroimmunological role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 31(3), 8–16. ()
- Ryan, L., & Symington, A. M. (2015). Algal-oil supplements are a viable alternative to fish-oil supplements in terms of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3; DHA). Journal of Functional Foods, 19, 852–858. ()
- Saccone, G., & Berghella, V. (2015). Omega-3 supplementation to prevent recurrent preterm birth: A systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 213(2), 135–140. h ()
- Saccone, G., Saccone, I., & Berghella, V. (2016). Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish oil supplementation during pregnancy: which evidence? The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine: The Official Journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstetricians, 29(15), 2389–2397. ()
- Sadeghi, N., Paknezhad, F., Rashidi Nooshabadi, M., Kavianpour, M., Jafari Rad, S., & Khadem Haghighian, H. (2018). Vitamin E and fish oil, separately or in combination, on treatment of primary dysmenorrhea: A double-blind, randomized clinical trial. Gynecological Endocrinology: The Official Journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology, 34(9), 804–808. ()
- Saglimbene, V. M., Wong, G., van Zwieten, A., Palmer, S. C., Ruospo, M., Natale, P., Campbell, K., Teixeira-Pinto, A., Craig, J. C., & Strippoli, G. F. M. (2020). Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in patients with chronic kidney disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Nutrition , 39(2), 358–368. ()
- Sahebkar, A., Simental-Mendía, L. E., Mikhailidis, D. P., Pirro, M., Banach, M., Sirtori, C. R., & Reiner, Ž. (2018). Effect of omega-3 supplements on plasma apolipoprotein C-III concentrations: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Annals of Medicine, 50(7), 565–575. ()
- Salvig, J. D., & Lamont, R. F. (2011). Evidence regarding an effect of marine n-3 fatty acids on preterm birth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 90(8), 825–838. ()
- Sampalis, F., Bunea, R., Pelland, M. F., Kowalski, O., Duguet, N., & Dupuis, S. (2003). Evaluation of the effects of Neptune Krill Oil on the management of premenstrual syndrome and dysmenorrhea. Alternative Medicine Review: A Journal of Clinical Therapeutic, 8(2), 171–179. h ()
- Sanders, T. A., Sullivan, D. R., Reeve, J., & Thompson, G. R. (1985). Triglyceride-lowering effect of marine polyunsaturates in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Arteriosclerosis , 5(5), 459–465. ()
- Sarmento Vasconcelos, V., Macedo, C. R., de Souza Pedrosa, A., Pereira Gomes Morais, E., Porfírio, G. J. M., & Torloni, M. R. (2016). Polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for drug-resistant epilepsy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 8, CD011014. ()
- Sarris, J., Mischoulon, D., & Schweitzer, I. (2012). Omega-3 for bipolar disorder: Meta-analyses of use in mania and bipolar depression. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73(1), 81–86. ()
- Saunders, E. F. H., Ramsden, C. E., Sherazy, M. S., Gelenberg, A. J., Davis, J. M., & Rapoport, S. I. (2016). Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in bipolar disorder: A review of biomarker and treatment studies. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77(10), e1301–e1308. ()
- Scaioli, E., Sartini, A., Bellanova, M., Campieri, M., Festi, D., Bazzoli, F., & Belluzzi, A. (2018). Eicosapentaenoic Acid reduces fecal levels of calprotectin and prevents relapse in patients with ulcerative colitis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology: The Official Clinical Practice Journal of the American Gastroenterological Association, 16(8), 1268–1275.e2. ()
- Schuchardt, J. P., Schneider, I., Meyer, H., Neubronner, J., von Schacky, C., & Hahn, A. (2011). Incorporation of EPA and DHA into plasma phospholipids in response to different omega-3 fatty acid formulations--A comparative bioavailability study of fish oil vs. krill oil. Lipids in Health and Disease, 10, 145. ()
- Sedláček, P., Plavinová, I., Langmajerová, J., Dvořáková, J., Novák, J., Trefil, L., Müller, L., Buňatová, P., Zeman, V., & Müllerová, D. (2018). Effect of n-3 fatty acids supplementation during life style modification in women with overweight. Central European Journal of Public Health, 26(4), 265–271. ()
- Sekikawa, A., Cui, C., Sugiyama, D., Fabio, A., Harris, W. S., & Zhang, X. (2019). Effect of high-dose marine omega-3 fatty acids on atherosclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Nutrients, 11(11). ()
- Senftleber, N. K., Nielsen, S. M., Andersen, J. R., Bliddal, H., Tarp, S., Lauritzen, L., Furst, D. E., Suarez-Almazor, M. E., Lyddiatt, A., & Christensen, R. (2017). Marine oil supplements for arthritis pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Nutrients, 9(1). ()
- Shen, D., Zhang, X., Li, Z., Bai, H., & Chen, L. (2017). Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Climacteric: The Journal of the International Menopause Society, 20(6), 522–527. ()
- Shulkin, M., Pimpin, L., Bellinger, D., Kranz, S., Fawzi, W., Duggan, C., & Mozaffarian, D. (2018). n-3 Fatty acid supplementation in mothers, preterm infants, and term infants and childhood psychomotor and visual development: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Nutrition, 148(3), 409–418. ()
- Sinn, N., & Bryan, J. (2007). Effect of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients on learning and behavior problems associated with child ADHD. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP, 28(2), 82–91. ()
- Sirtori, C. R., Crepaldi, G., Manzato, E., Mancini, M., Rivellese, A., Paoletti, R., Pazzucconi, F., Pamparana, F., & Stragliotto, E. (1998). One-year treatment with ethyl esters of n-3 fatty acids in patients with hypertriglyceridemia and glucose intolerance: Reduced triglyceridemia, total cholesterol and increased HDL-C without glycemic alterations. Atherosclerosis, 137(2), 419–427. ()
- Smesny, S., Milleit, B., Hipler, U.-C., Milleit, C., Schäfer, M. R., Klier, C. M., Holub, M., Holzer, I., Berger, G. E., Otto, M., Nenadic, I., Berk, M., McGorry, P. D., Sauer, H., & Amminger, G. P. (2014). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation changes intracellular phospholipase A2 activity and membrane fatty acid profiles in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis. Molecular Psychiatry, 19(3), 317–324. ()
- Smith, G. I., Atherton, P., Reeds, D. N., Mohammed, B. S., Rankin, D., Rennie, M. J., & Mittendorfer, B. (2011). Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 93(2), 402–412. ()
- Smith, G. I., Julliand, S., Reeds, D. N., Sinacore, D. R., Klein, S., & Mittendorfer, B. (2015). Fish oil-derived n-3 PUFA therapy increases muscle mass and function in healthy older adults. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 102(1), 115–122. ()
- Smutna, M., Kruzikova, K., Marsalek, P., Kopriva, V., & Svobodova, Z. (2009). Fish oil and cod liver as safe and healthy food supplements. Neuro Endocrinology Letters, 30 Suppl 1, 156–162. ()
- Soares, A. de A., Louçana, P. M. C., Nasi, E. P., Sousa, K. M. de H., Sá, O. M. de S., & Silva-Néto, R. P. (2018). A double- blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled clinical trial with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (OPFA ɷ-3) for the prevention of migraine in chronic migraine patients using amitriptyline. Nutritional Neuroscience, 21(3), 219–223. ()
- Sorice, M., Tritto, F. P., Sordelli, C., Gregorio, R., & Piazza, L. (2011). N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces post-operative atrial fibrillation incidence in patients undergoing “on-pump” coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease, 76(2), 93–98. ()
- Soveyd, N., Abdolahi, M., Djalali, M., Hatami, M., Tafakhori, A., Sarraf, P., & Honarvar, N. M. (2018). The combined effects of ω -3 fatty acids and nano-curcumin supplementation on intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) gene expression and serum levels in migraine patients. CNS & Neurological Disorders Drug Targets, 16(10), 1120–1126. ()
- Søyland, E., Lea, T., Sandstad, B., & Drevon, A. (1994). Dietary supplementation with very long-chain n-3 fatty acids in man decreases expression of the interleukin-2 receptor (CD25) on mitogen-stimulated lymphocytes from patients with inflammatory skin diseases. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 24(4), 236–242. ()
- Stark, K. D., Park, E. J., Maines, V. A., & Holub, B. J. (2000). Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(2), 389–394. ()
- Stoll, A. L., Severus, W. E., Freeman, M. P., Rueter, S., Zboyan, H. A., Diamond, E., Cress, K. K., & Marangell, L. B. (1999). Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(5), 407–412. ()
- Stoof, T. J., Korstanje, M. J., Bilo, H. J., Starink, T. M., Hulsmans, R. F., & Donker, A. J. (1989). Does fish oil protect renal function in cyclosporin-treated psoriasis patients? Journal of Internal Medicine, 226(6), 437–441. ()
- Stradling, C., Chen, Y.-F., Russell, T., Connock, M., Thomas, G. N., & Taheri, S. (2012). The effects of dietary intervention on HIV dyslipidaemia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One, 7(6), e38121. ()
- Sublette, M. E., Ellis, S. P., Geant, A. L., & Mann, J. J. (2011). Meta-analysis of the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in clinical trials in depression. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(12), 1577–1584. ()
- Sullivan Ritter, J. C., Budge, S. M., Jovica, F., & Reid, A.-J. M. (2015). Oxidation rates of triacylglycerol and ethyl ester fish oils. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 92(4), 561–569. ()
- Suzuki, Y., Fukushima, M., Sakuraba, K., Sawaki, K., & Sekigawa, K. (2016). Krill oil improves mild knee joint pain: A randomized control trial. PloS One, 11(10), e0162769. ()
- Sydenham, E., Dangour, A. D., & Lim, W.-S. (2012). Omega 3 fatty acid for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 6, CD005379. ()
- Tam, K.-W., Wu, M.-Y., Siddiqui, F. J., Chan, E. S., Zhu, Y., & Jafar, T. H. (2018). Omega-3 fatty acids for dialysis vascular access outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 11, CD011353. ()
- Tamargo, J., & Tamargo, M. (2016). Pharmacokinetics and Safety Profile of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. In M. V. Hegde, A. A. Zanwar, & S. P. Adekar (Eds.), Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Keys to Nutritional Health (pp. 541–584). Springer International Publishing. ()
- Tartibian, B., Maleki, B. H., & Abbasi, A. (2011). Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation attenuates inflammatory markers after eccentric exercise in untrained men. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine: Official Journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine, 21(2), 131–137. ()
- Teo, L., Crawford, C., Yehuda, R., Jaghab, D., Bingham, J. J., Chittum, H. K., Gallon, M. D., O’Connell, M. L., Arzola, S. M., & Berry, K. (2017). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to optimize cognitive function for military mission-readiness: A systematic review and recommendations for the field. Nutrition Reviews, 75(2), 36–48. ()
- Tomer, A., Kasey, S., Connor, W. E., Clark, S., Harker, L. A., & Eckman, J. R. (2001). Reduction of pain episodes and prothrombotic activity in sickle cell disease by dietary n-3 fatty acids. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 85(6), 966–974. ()
- Tsuchiya, Y., Yanagimoto, K., Nakazato, K., Hayamizu, K., & Ochi, E. (2016). Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids-rich fish oil supplementation attenuates strength loss and limited joint range of motion after eccentric contractions: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 116(6), 1179–1188. ()
- Tsuchiya, Y., Yanagimoto, K., Ueda, H., & Ochi, E. (2019). Supplementation of eicosapentaenoic acid-rich fish oil attenuates muscle stiffness after eccentric contractions of human elbow flexors. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 16(1), 19. ()
- Tummala, R., Ghosh, R. K., Jain, V., Devanabanda, A. R., Bandyopadhyay, D., Deedwania, P., & Aronow, W. S. (2019). Fish oil and cardiometabolic diseases: Recent updates and controversies. The American Journal of Medicine, 132(10), 1153–1159. ()
- Turnbull, T., Cullen-Drill, M., & Smaldone, A. (2008). Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on improvement of bipolar symptoms: A systematic review. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 22(5), 305–311. ()
- Turner, D., Shah, P. S., Steinhart, A. H., Zlotkin, S., & Griffiths, A. M. (2011). Maintenance of remission in inflammatory bowel disease using omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil): A systematic review and meta-analyses. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, 17(1), 336–345. ()
- chiyama-Tanaka, Y., & Mori, Y. (2010). Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation on immunoglobulin A nephropathy. Therapeutic Apheresis and Dialysis: Official Peer-Reviewed Journal of the International Society for Apheresis, the Japanese Society for Apheresis, the Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy, 14(3), 303–307. ()
- Upala, S., Yong, W. C., Theparee, T., & Sanguankeo, A. (2017). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on disease severity in patients with psoriasis: A systematic review. International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases, 20(4), 442–450. ()
- Ursoniu, S., Sahebkar, A., Serban, M.-C., Antal, D., Mikhailidis, D. P., Cicero, A., Athyros, V., Rizzo, M., Rysz, J., Banach, M., & Lipid and Blood Pressure Meta-analysis Collaboration Group. (2017). Lipid-modifying effects of krill oil in humans: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrition Reviews, 75(5), 361–373. ()
- Vahdaninia, M., Mackenzie, H., Dean, T., & Helps, S. (2019). ω-3 LCPUFA supplementation during pregnancy and risk of allergic outcomes or sensitization in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology: Official Publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology, 122(3), 302–313.e2. ()
- Vaisman, N., Kaysar, N., Zaruk-Adasha, Y., Pelled, D., Brichon, G., Zwingelstein, G., & Bodennec, J. (2008). Correlation between changes in blood fatty acid composition and visual sustained attention performance in children with inattention: Effect of dietary n-3 fatty acids containing phospholipids. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87(5), 1170–1180. ()
- van der Heide, J. J., Bilo, H. J., Donker, J. M., Wilmink, J. M., & Tegzess, A. M. (1993). Effect of dietary fish oil on renal function and rejection in cyclosporine-treated recipients of renal transplants. The New England Journal of Medicine, 329(11), 769–773. ()
- van Papendorp, D. H., Coetzer, H., & Kruger, M. C. (1995). Biochemical profile of osteoporotic patients on essential fatty acid supplementation. Nutrition Research , 15(3), 325–334. ()
- Vasheghani Farahani, A., Yousefi Azar, A., Goodarzynejad, H. R., Khorrami, E., Hosseinzadeh-Attar, M. J., Oshnouei, S., Alizadeh Ghavidel, A., Golfeshan, E., & Ghourban Pour, F. (2017). Fish oil supplementation for primary prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: A randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Surgery , 42, 41–48. ()
- Vedin, I., Cederholm, T., Freund-Levi, Y., Basun, H., Garlind, A., Irving, G. F., Eriksdotter-Jönhagen, M., Wahlund, L.-O., Dahlman, I., & Palmblad, J. (2012). Effects of DHA-rich n-3 fatty acid supplementation on gene expression in blood mononuclear leukocytes: The OmegAD study. PloS One, 7(4), e35425. ()
- Ventura, H. O., Milani, R. V., Lavie, C. J., Smart, F. W., Stapleton, D. D., Toups, T. S., & Price, H. L. (1993). Cyclosporine-induced hypertension. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids in patients after cardiac transplantation. Circulation, 88(5 Pt 2), II281–II285. ()
- Vesco, A. T., Young, A. S., Arnold, L. E., & Fristad, M. A. (2018). Omega-3 supplementation associated with improved parent-rated executive function in youth with mood disorders: Secondary analyses of the omega 3 and therapy (OATS) trials. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 59(6), 628–636. ()
- Viecelli, A. K., Irish, A. B., Polkinghorne, K. R., Hawley, C. M., Johnson, D. W., Mori, T. A., Pascoe, E. M., Strippoli, G. F. M., Lok, C. E., & Palmer, S. C. (2018). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation to prevent arteriovenous fistula and graft failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Kidney Diseases: The Official Journal of the National Kidney Foundation, 72(1), 50–61. ()
- Vieira, A. D. S., & Silveira, G. R. M. da. (2017). Effectiveness of n-3 fatty acids in the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV/AIDS patients: A meta-analysis. Ciencia & Saude Coletiva, 22(8), 2659–2669. ()
- Villani, A. M., Crotty, M., Cleland, L. G., James, M. J., Fraser, R. J., Cobiac, L., & Miller, M. D. (2013). Fish oil administration in older adults: is there potential for adverse events? A systematic review of the literature. BMC Geriatrics, 13, 41. ()
- Voigt, R. G., Mellon, M. W., Katusic, S. K., Weaver, A. L., Matern, D., Mellon, B., Jensen, C. L., & Barbaresi, W. J. (2014). Dietary docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with autism. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 58(6), 715–722. ()
- Vors, C., Allaire, J., Marin, J., Lépine, M.-C., Charest, A., Tchernof, A., Couture, P., & Lamarche, B. (2017). Inflammatory gene expression in whole blood cells after EPA vs. DHA supplementation: Results from the ComparED study. Atherosclerosis, 257, 116–122. ()
- Walser, B., & Stebbins, C. L. (2008). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation enhances stroke volume and cardiac output during dynamic exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 104(3), 455–461. ()
- Wang, C., Xiong, B., & Huang, J. (2016). The role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in heart failure: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Nutrients, 9(1). ()
- Wang, H., Chen, J., & Zhao, L. (2018). N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for prevention of postoperative atrial fibrillation: Updated meta-analysis and systematic review. Journal of Interventional Cardiac Electrophysiology: An International Journal of Arrhythmias and Pacing, 51(2), 105–115. ()
- Wang, Q., Liang, X., Wang, L., Lu, X., Huang, J., Cao, J., Li, H., & Gu, D. (2012). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on endothelial function: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Atherosclerosis, 221(2), 536–543. ()
- Wang, X., Hjorth, E., Vedin, I., Eriksdotter, M., Freund-Levi, Y., Wahlund, L.-O., Cederholm, T., Palmblad, J., & Schultzberg, M. (2015). Effects of n-3 FA supplementation on the release of proresolving lipid mediators by blood mononuclear cells: The OmegAD study. Journal of Lipid Research, 56(3), 674–681. ()
- Warstedt, K., Furuhjelm, C., Duchén, K., Fälth-Magnusson, K., & Fagerås, M. (2009). The effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on maternal eicosanoid, cytokine, and chemokine secretion. Pediatric Research, 66(2), 212–217. ()
- Watson, H., & Stackhouse, C. (2020). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 4, CD002201. ()
- Wei, M. Y., & Jacobson, T. A. (2011). Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid versus docosahexaenoic acid on serum lipids: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Current Atherosclerosis Reports, 13(6), 474–483. ()
- Wei-Hong, L., Cheng-Gui, Z., Peng-Fei, G., Heng, L., & Jian-Fang, Y. (2017). Omega-3 fatty acids as monotherapy in treating depression in pregnant women: A meta- analysis of randomized controlled trials. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 16(4), 1593–1599. ()
- Wilbring, M., Ploetze, K., Bormann, S., Waldow, T., & Matschke, K. (2014). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce the incidence of postoperative atrial fibrillation in patients with history of prior myocardial infarction undergoing isolated coronary artery bypass grafting. The Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon, 62(7), 569–574. ()
- Winther, B., Hoem, N., Berge, K., & Reubsaet, L. (2011). Elucidation of phosphatidylcholine composition in krill oil extracted from Euphausia superba. Lipids, 46(1), 25–36. ()
- Wood, S. J., Cocchi, L., Proffitt, T.-M., McConchie, M., Jackson, G. D., Takahashi, T., Pantelis, C., McGorry, P. D., & Berger, G. E. (2010). Neuroprotective effects of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid in first episode psychosis: A longitudinal T2 relaxometry pilot study. Psychiatry Research, 182(2), 180–182. ()
- Woodcock, B. E., Smith, E., Lambert, W. H., Jones, W. M., Galloway, J. H., Greaves, M., & Preston, F. E. (1984). Beneficial effect of fish oil on blood viscosity in peripheral vascular disease. British Medical Journal , 288(6417), 592–594. ()
- Wright, S. A., O’Prey, F. M., McHenry, M. T., Leahey, W. J., Devine, A. B., Duffy, E. M., Johnston, D. G., Finch, M. B., Bell, A. L., & McVeigh, G. E. (2008). A randomised interventional trial of omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids on endothelial function and disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 67(6), 841–848. ()
- Wu, J. H. Y., Micha, R., Imamura, F., Pan, A., Biggs, M. L., Ajaz, O., Djousse, L., Hu, F. B., & Mozaffarian, D. (2012). Omega-3 fatty acids and incident type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal of Nutrition, 107 Suppl 2, S214–S227. ()
- Xin, W., Wei, W., & Li, X. (2012a). Effects of fish oil supplementation on inflammatory markers in chronic heart failure: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, 12, 77. ()
- Xin, W., Wei, W., & Li, X. (2012b). Effects of fish oil supplementation on cardiac function in chronic heart failure: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Heart , 98(22), 1620–1625. ()
- Xin, W., Wei, W., Lin, Z., Zhang, X., Yang, H., Zhang, T., Li, B., & Mi, S. (2013). Fish oil and atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PloS One, 8(9), e72913. ()
- Xu, T., Sun, Y., Sun, W., Yao, L., Sun, L., Liu, L., Ma, J., & Wang, L. (2016). Effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on serum lipids and vascular inflammation in patients with end-stage renal disease: A meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 6, 39346. ()
- Yan, J.-H., Guan, B.-J., Gao, H.-Y., & Peng, X.-E. (2018). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Medicine, 97(37), e12271. ()
- Yang, B., Shi, M.-Q., Li, Z.-H., Shi, L., Wang, A.-M., Guo, X.-J., & Li, D. (2019). Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements on cardiometabolic profiles in hypertensive patients with abdominal obesity in Inner Mongolia: a randomized controlled trial. Food & Function, 10(3), 1661–1670. ()
- Yang, H., Xun, P., & He, K. (2013). Fish and fish oil intake in relation to risk of asthma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One, 8(11), e80048. ()
- Yang, J., Fernández-Galilea, M., Martínez-Fernández, L., González-Muniesa, P., Pérez-Chávez, A., Martínez, J. A., & Moreno-Aliaga, M. J. (2019). Oxidative Stress and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. Nutrients, 11(4), 872. ()
- Yang, S.-J., & Chi, C.-C. (2019). Effects of fish oil supplement on psoriasis: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 19(1), 354. ()
- Yu, L., Yuan, M., & Wang, L. (2017). The effect of omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences Quarterly, 33(4), 1022–1028. ()
- Yuen, A. W. C., Sander, J. W., Fluegel, D., Patsalos, P. N., Bell, G. S., Johnson, T., & Koepp, M. J. (2005). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with chronic epilepsy: A randomized trial. Epilepsy & Behavior: E&B, 7(2), 253–258. ()
- Yurko-Mauro, K., Alexander, D. D., & Van Elswyk, M. E. (2015). Docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One, 10(3), e0120391. ()
- Zhang, X.-W., Hou, W.-S., Li, M., & Tang, Z.-Y. (2016). Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of cognitive decline in the elderly: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(1), 165–166. ()
- Zhang, Y., Chen, J., Qiu, J., Li, Y., Wang, J., & Jiao, J. (2016). Intakes of fish and polyunsaturated fatty acids and mild-to-severe cognitive impairment risks: A dose-response meta-analysis of 21 cohort studies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 103(2), 330–340. ()
- Zhang, Y. Y., Liu, W., Zhao, T. Y., & Tian, H. M. (2017). Efficacy of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation in managing overweight and obesity: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, 21(2), 187–192. ()
- hang, Z., Fulgoni, V. L., Kris-Etherton, P. M., & Mitmesser, S. H. (2018). Dietary intakes of epa and dha omega-3 fatty acids among us childbearing-age and pregnant women: An analysis of NHANES 2001-2014. Nutrients, 10(4). ()
- Zhao, Y.-T., Chen, Q., Sun, Y.-X., Li, X.-B., Zhang, P., Xu, Y., & Guo, J.-H. (2009). Prevention of sudden cardiac death with omega-3 fatty acids in patients with coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Annals of Medicine, 41(4), 301–310. ()